1438 lines
45 KiB
Markdown
1438 lines
45 KiB
Markdown
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---
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title: la karda
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---
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<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="/files/normalize.css">
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# la karda
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> by ldlework
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## Preface
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This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language.
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Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as
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little as possible.
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That is to say:
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- For each concept the most crucial aspects are presented
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- However, some details may be glossed over or simplified
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- Some details are only mentioned or explained by their mere
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appearance in example sentences. Look carefully\!
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*Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely\!*
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However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the
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most immediate and expedient manner possible, a **conceptualization** of
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the language. Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical"
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and "unambiguous" to "culturally neutral". The characterization that
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this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both rational (it makes
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sense) and regular (it always works the same).
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From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes
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Lojban easier to learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at
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first.
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**Tip:**
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` If you take the following passages at reading speed you will likely find`
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` yourself lost in the forest very quickly. The slower you go, the better luck`
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` you'll have at absorbing what it is trying to tell you.`
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` In the end, if you're confused, use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll`
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` be fine!`
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### Special Thanks
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A number of people have contributed to the creation of this document in
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various ways:
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A general thanks goes to the entire IRC community, since it is the
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largest driver of Lojban's on-going promotion and evolution.
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Thanks goes to `la selpa'i ku` who's article on ZAhO was the inspiration
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for the section on "Understanding Time" and has made a number of
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corrections to errors in this document as well as helping along my own
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study of Lojban. And of course their many contributions to the language
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itself.
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Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections:
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`la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki, la tsani, la lalxu`
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## Core Grammar
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### Parts of Language
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In Language there are three major parts:
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` nouns: the things we talk about`
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` verbs: tell us what the nouns do`
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` sentences: says something using nouns and verbs`
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### Types of Words
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Lojban only has two kinds of words:
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` particles: short words that perform grammar functions`
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` verbs: tell us what nouns do`
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### What about Nouns?
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What about nouns?\!
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` Hold that thought.`
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### Standard Form
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Every sentence follows the form:
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` i x1 VERB x2 x3 xN`
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`i` separates multiple sentences. The first noun appears before the
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verb, additional nouns follow the verb.
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### Verbs Say What Nouns Do
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Verbs tell us what the nouns do:
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` dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
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` [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]`
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` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
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` x1 verb x2 x3`
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### Simple Pro-nouns
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Some particles act like pro-nouns:
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` mi - me, the speaker`
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` do - you, the listener`
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` ti - this, something nearby`
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### Verbs and Nouns
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Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do:
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` mi dunda ti do`
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` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
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` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
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` x1 verb x2 x3`
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` "I give this to you."`
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### Rearranging Nouns
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Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do:
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` do* dunda ti mi*`
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` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
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` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
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` x1 verb x2 x3`
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` "You give this to me."`
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### Converting Verbs to Nouns
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The particles `lo` and `ku` convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role:
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` Pattern: lo VERB ku => NOUN from x1`
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` dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
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` ▼`
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` verb`
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` ┌─┴─┐`
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` lo dunda ku <== [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]`
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` ─────┬───── ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
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` noun x1 verb x2 x3`
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`lo dunda ku` creates a noun-description which refers to "a donor"
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` mi dunda ti lo dunda ku`
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` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
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` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
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` x1 verb x2 x3`
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` "I gave this to a donor."`
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### Complex Sentences
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Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed:
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` mlatu: x1 is a cat`
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` pinxe: x1 drinks beverage x2`
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` ladru: x1 is milk`
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` lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku`
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` [drinker] │ [beverage]`
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` ├──────────┼─────────┤`
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` x1 verb x2`
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` "A cat drinks some milk."`
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### The Drama of Language
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The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed
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by the Verb and starring the Nouns.
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` Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe!`
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The Verb Director tells us what Roles are available and What Happens:
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` Pinxe says, "x1 drinks beverage x2"`
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` Story Outline: [drinker] pinxe [beverage]`
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` SCRIPT:`
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` 1. A Drinker drinks!`
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` 2. A Beverage is imbibed!`
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` CAST:`
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` The lead Drinker : lo mlatu ku (mlatu's x1 - "a cat")`
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` The supporting Beverage: lo ladru ku (ladru's x1 - "some milk")`
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` STAGE:`
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` lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku <= actors in the play`
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` [drinker] │ [beverage] <= roles in the play`
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` ├──────────┼─────────┤`
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` role1 director role2`
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` "A cat drinks some milk."`
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### Rearranging Verbs
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The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs:
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` Pattern: SE VERB => VERB'`
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The roles of the x1 and xN nouns, what they do, is swapped in the new
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modified
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verb:
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` klama: x1 travels to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5`
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` | X1 | VERB | X2 | X3 | X4 | X5 |`
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` | traveler | klama | destination | origin | route | vehicle |`
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` x1◄ ►x2 | destination | se klama | traveler | origin | route | vehicle |`
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` x1◄ ►x3 | origin | te klama | destination | traveler | route | vehicle |`
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` x1◄ ►x4 | route | ve klama | destination | origin | traveler | vehicle |`
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` x1◄ ►x5 | vehicle | xe klama | destination | origin | route | traveler |`
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` se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5`
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` and so on..`
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### SE In Action
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These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main
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verb of sentences:
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` fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3`
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` vecnu: x1 sells x2 to buyer x3 for price x4`
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` dakfu: x1 is a knife`
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` lo se fraxu ku te vecnu lo dakfu ku`
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` [buyer] | [goods]`
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` └────────────┴───────────┘`
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` "The forgiven buys a knife."`
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` friti: x1 offers x2 to x3`
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` xamgu: x1 is beneficial to x2`
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` ginka: x1 is an encampment of x2`
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` lo se friti ku xamgu lo se ginka ku`
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` [benefit] | [beneficiary]`
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` └───────────┴───────────┘`
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` "The offering is good for the campers."`
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### FA Labels
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The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering
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of sentences without modifying the verb:
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` Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN'`
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` fa : x1 Each particle from the FA family`
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` fe : x2 simply specifies what the following`
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` fi : x3 noun is doing in the sentence. In`
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` fo : x4 other words which role from the verb`
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` fu : x5 it fills.`
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This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb:
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` dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you"`
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Or skip some places entirely:
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` mi dunda fi do - "I donate to you"`
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Counting resumes from any FA particle:
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` fe ti dunda fa mi do - "I donate this to you"`
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` ──┬── ──┬── ─┐`
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` x2 x1 x3`
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### Cmavo and Brivla
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Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary:
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` "cmavo" - mi, ti, do, lo, ku`
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` - small word that performs a grammatical function`
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` - categorized into families`
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` "brivla" : dunda, klama, mlatu, ladru`
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` - a word that produces a grammatical verb`
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` - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles`
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### Selbri Sumti and Bridi
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It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in
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lojban sentences:
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` "selbri" - the verb phrases central to sentences and nouns`
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` "sumti" - the noun phrases that take on semantic roles`
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` "bridi" - the combination of a selbri and its sumti`
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`LEGEND:`
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` <> - selbri verb`
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` [] - sumti noun`
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` {} - bridi statement`
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Notice how selbri verb phrases appear throughout:
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` lo <se `<jdice>`> ku `<nandu>` lo `<sonci>` ku`
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Sumti nouns are placed around the root selbri:
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` [lo se jdice ku] nandu [lo sonci ku]`
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And the whole structure, a selbri with its sumti, is a bridi:
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` {lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku}`
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### Tanru
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By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a `tanru` or
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compound-selbri verb can be created:
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` mi <`<djica>` `<citka>`> lo `<plise>` ku`
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` "I want-eat an apple."`
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Two brivla `cidja` and `dunda` come together below to create a
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compound-selbri inside a sumti:
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` Simple Selbri`
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` ┌───┴───┐`
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` lo <`<cidja>` `<dunda>`> ku `<prami>` lo `<prenu>` ku`
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` └───────┬───────┘`
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` Selbri Tanru`
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` "The food-donor loves people."`
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But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or tanru?
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Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However,
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basic structure of the definition is that of the **right most** selbri
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component:
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` gleki : x1 is happy about x2`
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` cadzu : x1 walks on surface x2`
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` gleki cadzu : x1 happy-walks on surface x2`
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` What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure!`
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## Conversation
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### Proper Nouns
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Proper nouns are created by using `la` instead of `lo`:
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` mi prami lo rozgu ku`
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` ── ──`
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` "I love roses."`
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` mi prami la rozgu ku`
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` ── ──`
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` "I love Rose."`
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` Names are sumti just like any other.`
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### Introductions
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Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo `mi'e`:
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` Pattern: mi'e NAME`
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` mi'e la rozgu ku`
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` ────`
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` "I'm Rose."`
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### Greetings
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Greeting another person is done with the cmavo `coi`:
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` Pattern: coi SUMTI`
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` coi la rozgu ku`
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` ───`
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` "Hello, Rose."`
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` coi lo tadni ku`
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` ───`
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` "Hello, student"`
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` coi do`
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` ───`
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` "Hello, you."`
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` Or just, "coi"`
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### Farewells
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|||
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Farewells are offered with the cmavo `co'o`:
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` Pattern: co'o SUMTI`
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` co'o la rozgu ku`
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` ────`
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` "Goodbye, Rose."`
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### Requesting Attention
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Requests for attention are made with the cmavo `ju'i`:
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` Pattern: ju'i SUMTI`
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` ju'i la rozgu ku`
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` ───`
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` "Hey, Rose."`
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If multiple listeners paying attention you can address them individually
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with `doi`:
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` Pattern: doi SUMTI`
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` doi la mirli ku ko mipri`
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` ───`
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` "Keep it secret, Moose"`
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### Yes No Questions
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|||
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"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the `xu` cmavo:
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|||
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` i xu do citka lo plise ku`
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` ──`
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` "Did you eat an apple?"`
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|||
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|||
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Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a
|
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statement the overall structure hasn't changed.
|
|||
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|
|||
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The `xu` is placed after the sentence separator `i` so as to apply to
|
|||
|
the whole sentence equally. By placing `xu` after a specific word
|
|||
|
emphasis can be placed on it:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i do citka lo xu plise ku`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "Was it an apple you ate?""`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Yes No Answers
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` In the affirmative, "go'i" is used:`
|
|||
|
` Q: xu do citka lo plise ku`
|
|||
|
` A: go'i`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` The denial is supplied by: na go'i`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Sumti Questions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the `ma` cmavo in place
|
|||
|
of the sumti in question.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do citka ma`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "What did you eat?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ma catra ma`
|
|||
|
` ── ──`
|
|||
|
` "Who killed who?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
To answer sumti questions simply state what fills the missing place:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` lo plise ku`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Or restate the question with the places filled in:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do catra mi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Selbri Questions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the `mo` cmavo in place
|
|||
|
of the selbri in question.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mo fa mi do ti`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "What are we doing with this?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do mo`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "You are/doing what?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do mo fengu mi`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "What kind of angry are you at me?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Attitude Questions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A special kind of question using the cmavo `pei` asks the listener to
|
|||
|
share their feelings or disposition about some topic:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i pei mi cliva`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "How do you feel about me leaving?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
"pei" is another word which can direct its emphasis by way of
|
|||
|
right-attachment:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi jukpa lo jipci ku pei`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook.`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Attitude Cmavo
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer
|
|||
|
to `pei` can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals".
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ui - "I'm happy"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` a'o - "I hope"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i'e - "I approve"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another
|
|||
|
some aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the
|
|||
|
attitudinal is appears in.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ui do prami mi`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "You love me, and I'm happy about it."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i a'o do snada`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "I'm hopeful you succeed."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of
|
|||
|
speech they attach to:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do pinxe lo birje ku e'u`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "I suggest beer to be what you drink."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Attitude Ranges
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can
|
|||
|
be altered from the default.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, `nai` and
|
|||
|
other cmavo can affect the sense of the UI cmavo:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ui cai - "I'm happy as possible"`
|
|||
|
` ui sai - "I'm very happy"`
|
|||
|
` ui - "I'm happy"`
|
|||
|
` ui ru'e - "I'm kinda/sorta happy"`
|
|||
|
` ui cu'i - "I'm neutral in my happiness"`
|
|||
|
` ui nai - "I'm unhappy"`
|
|||
|
` ui nai sai - "I'm very unhappy"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
and so on...
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Evidential Cmavo
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an
|
|||
|
epistemological claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or
|
|||
|
state whatever it is they are saying:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ti'e do nelci mi`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I hear rumored that you like me."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i pe'i lo plise ku xamgu`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "It is my opinion that apples are beneficial."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i za'a do mutce xagji`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I observe that you are very hungry."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ba'a la rozgu ku zvati lo zdani ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I expect Rose is at the house."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Discursive Cmavo
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express
|
|||
|
the point or purpose of a part of or a whole statement.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i do citka lo titla ku po'o`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "You only eat sweets."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ji'a mi nitcu lo jdini ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Also, I need money."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i si'a mi terpa lo jukni ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Similarly, I'm afraid of spiders."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ku'i lo jenmi ku daspo`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "However, armys are destructive."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Humor
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Sarcasm:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i xo'o lo se platu ku banli`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Oh jeeze, great plan."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i xo'o nai lo skaci ku melbi`
|
|||
|
` ────────`
|
|||
|
` "Seriously, that skirt is beautiful."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Levity:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i zo'o se ckaji do`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Ho! Typical you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i zo'o nai mi nelci lo cutci`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I do like these shoes..."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Amusement:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i u'i xu do mulno`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "Haha, are you done yet?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i u'i nai xu do mulno`
|
|||
|
` ───────`
|
|||
|
` "Yea.. are you done yet?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Changing the Subject
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
If things get tense you can always change the subject with `ta'o`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ta'o do klama ma`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "By the way, where are you going?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
You can also return to a previous topic by adding `nai`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ta'o nai mi'o casnu ma`
|
|||
|
` ────────`
|
|||
|
` "Returning, what were we discussing?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Requests and Commands
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your
|
|||
|
interlocutor to leave:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i e'o do cliva`
|
|||
|
` ───`
|
|||
|
` "Please, you leave."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Or if they have been particularly offensive you might demand it\!
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ko cliva`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I implore you to leave."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do".`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Sumti Manipulation
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Saying "and" and "or"
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective
|
|||
|
cmavo `je` can be used:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi nelci [[lo plise ku] je [lo perli ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I like apples and pears."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Similarly, `ja` can be used for "or":
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ko cuxna [[lo dakfu ku] ja [lo mruli ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "Pick the knife or the spear"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Grouping
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together,
|
|||
|
`jo'u` can be used:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i [[mi] jo'u [do]] bevri lo pipno`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "You and I carry the piano"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi se catra [[lo fagri ku] jo'u [lo bisli ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I was killed by fire and ice."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Ownership
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo `po`
|
|||
|
is used:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SUMTI po SUMTI => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i [[lo karce ku] po [mi]] spofu`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "My car is broken."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ko cpacu [[lo ckiku ku] po [do]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "Go get your keys."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Association
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
For a weaker association than ownership you can use `pe`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SUMTI pe SUMTI => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi vasxu [[lo vacri ku] pe [do]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I'm breathing your air."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i ko zutse [[lo stizu ku] pe [mi]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "Sit in my chair."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Pluralities
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before
|
|||
|
the sumti:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Numbers:`
|
|||
|
` no pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so`
|
|||
|
` 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi viska [mu [lo bakni ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I see 5 cows."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi se raktu [so so [lo nabmi ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ─────`
|
|||
|
` "I am troubled by 99 problems."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Subjective Numbers
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i xu do citka [du'e [lo plise ku]]`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Did you eat too many apples?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` so'u lo plise ku - "a few apples"`
|
|||
|
` so'o lo plise ku - "several apples"`
|
|||
|
` so'i lo plise ku - "many apples"`
|
|||
|
` so'e lo plise ku - "most of the apples"`
|
|||
|
` ro lo plise ku - "all the apples"`
|
|||
|
` rau lo plise ku - "enough apples"`
|
|||
|
` mo'a lo plise ku - "not enough apples"`
|
|||
|
` da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Selbri Manipulation
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Negation and Affirmation
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example
|
|||
|
negation is done with `na`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi <na `<xagji>`>`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I'm not hungry"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` On the flip-side you can say something is certain:`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi <ja'a `<xagji>`>`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I am definitely hungry"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Scaling Relevance
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri
|
|||
|
is applied:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi <no'e `<xagji>`>`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm not really that hungry."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi <to'e `<xagji>`>`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm full!"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Saying "and" and "or"
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective
|
|||
|
words:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi <`<tatpi>` je `<xagji>`>`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I'm tired and hungry"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` i mi'o e'u <`<citka>` ja `<cliva>`>.`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "We should eat or leave."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Tense
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified
|
|||
|
to have such tense:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I saw you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <ca `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I see you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <ba `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I will see you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Temporal Distance
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu zi `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I just saw you!"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu za `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I saw you a while ago."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu zu `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "It has been a long while since I've seen you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Proximity
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <vi `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I saw you right here!"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <va `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I saw you nearby."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <vu `<viska>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I saw you elsewhere."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Preloading
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti, removing a sumti place from
|
|||
|
the definition, with the `be` cmavo:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` dunda : x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
|
|||
|
` dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
By default `be` injects a sumti into the x2 place, but the FA family can
|
|||
|
be used to specify which place should be filled:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by `bei`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Preloaded Sumti
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Note that `be` forms a new selbri even though it incorporates a sumti:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌──────new selbri──────────┐`
|
|||
|
` <`<vecnu>` be [lo xarci ku]> = x1 sells weapons to x2`
|
|||
|
` │ │`
|
|||
|
` base selbri injected sumti`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
This is a little strange when used as the main verb of a sentence:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` (who) (sells guns) (the state)`
|
|||
|
` ma `<vecnu be lo xarci ku>` lo jecta ku`
|
|||
|
` [seller] │ [buyer]`
|
|||
|
` └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
`lo xarci ku` could just have been provided as x2 to a normal `vecnu`.
|
|||
|
The `be` appears unnessecary. However, this is very useful for creating
|
|||
|
interesting sumti\!
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐`
|
|||
|
` mi tavla [lo <`<vecnu>` be [lo xarci ku]> ku]`
|
|||
|
` "I talk to the seller of weapons.`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ko na lebna [lo <`<sidbo>` be fi [mi]> ku]`
|
|||
|
` "Don't you take ideas of mine."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
This is far more explicit than using `pe` or `po`.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Subordination
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Facts
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Similar to the transformation of selbri into sumti the same can be done
|
|||
|
for whole bridi into selbri with the help of `du'u` and `kei`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The definition of such a selbri is something like:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` x1 is the fact represented by the inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌───fact selbri────┐`
|
|||
|
` du'u do prami mi kei = x1 is the fact that: you love me`
|
|||
|
` └─────┬─────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Adding `lo` and `ku`, the selbri is transformed into a sumti allowing
|
|||
|
one to talk about the fact inside:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` [lo <du'u {do prami mi} kei> ku] = "the fact that you love me"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
These nested fact sumti can be used as any other:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌───fact selbri────┐`
|
|||
|
` mi djuno [lo du'u do prami mi kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └─────┬─────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "I know that you love me."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Events
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Where `du'u` gets at the truth of a matter, `nu` can emphasize the time
|
|||
|
and location in which a bridi takes place:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The definition of such a selbri is something like:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌──fact selbri───┐`
|
|||
|
` nu do speni mi kei = x1 is the event of: you are married to me`
|
|||
|
` └─────┬─────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Just like with `du'u` these `nu` selbri can be turned into sumti with
|
|||
|
`lo` and `ku`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` [lo <nu {do speni mi} kei> ku] = "the event of our marriage"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
And can be incorporated into larger sentences:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌──fact selbri───┐`
|
|||
|
` mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └─────┬─────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "I desire our marriage."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Properties
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A third word, `ka` can also create a selbri from a bridi much like
|
|||
|
`du'u` and `nu`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The bridi must contain at least one `ce'u` sumti:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌───────property selbri────────┐`
|
|||
|
` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └────────────┬────────────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The `ce'u` has no meaning of its own. The selbri that receives the
|
|||
|
property specifies what it refers to. In this case, it is `cnici` taking
|
|||
|
the property as its x2.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The definition of `cnici` is:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property x2`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
And so it is the x1, or `mi`, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └───────┬────────┘`
|
|||
|
` bound sumti`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The `ce'u` can appear anywhere in the inner bridi:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └──────────────┬─────────────────┘`
|
|||
|
` bound sumti`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Some selbri words make comparative statements:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
|
|||
|
` └────────────┬────────────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "You are more than me in the eating of cookies."`
|
|||
|
` "You eat more cookies than me."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Numerous property relations exist within the Lojban lexicon.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Relative Phrases
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Additional information about a sumti can be provided by attaching a
|
|||
|
bridi to it with `noi`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Similarly to the properties created with `ka`, `noi` bridi have a
|
|||
|
stand-in word `ke'a`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o`
|
|||
|
` └──────┬──────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Meet Rose, who I love.`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The `noi` bridi is attached to `la rozgu ku` and so it is her to whom
|
|||
|
`ke'a` refers to.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
If the information is not merely incidental but nessecary to discern
|
|||
|
which thing is being talking about `poi` can be used instead:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o`
|
|||
|
` └──────┬──────┘`
|
|||
|
` inner bridi`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.)`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Understanding Time
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The basic tenses `pu`, `ca` and `ba` were covered previously but there
|
|||
|
is a bit more to say about time.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Basic Tenses
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The tense for stating something is currently happening is `ca`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi ca citka`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I am currently eating."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "The present coincides with my eating."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` citka`
|
|||
|
` ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
How about the other tenses?
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi pu pensi`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "I was thinking."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "The past coincides with my thinking."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` pensi`
|
|||
|
` ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` do ba jimpe`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "You will understand."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` "The future coincides with your understanding."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` jimpe`
|
|||
|
` ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Event Contours
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
All events have a "temporal extent" or lifetime. It is often useful to
|
|||
|
describe the various events "within" an event. The ZAhO family of tenses
|
|||
|
can be used for accessing
|
|||
|
them:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ╎ pu'o: before`
|
|||
|
`pu'o ═══════════╣ ╠════════════ ba'o ╎ co'a: the outset`
|
|||
|
` co'a de'a di'a co'u ╎ de'a: break`
|
|||
|
` ╎ di'a: resumption`
|
|||
|
` └───────────┬─────────────┘ ╎ co'u: finish`
|
|||
|
` co'i ╎ ba'o: after`
|
|||
|
` ╎ co'i: for the duration`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Like basic tenses, they modify a selbri to create a new one:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <co'a `<citka>`> lo plise ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm starting to eat an apple."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi pacna lo nu <co'u `<carvi>`> kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I wish for it to finish raining."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ko <de'a `<tadni>`>`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Take a break from studying."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu'o `<sipna>`>`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Its before my bedtime."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <ba'o `<prami>`> do`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "My loving you has passed.""`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Tensed Contours
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
If no basic tense is provided, `ca` or present-tense is assumed:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <ca <co'a `<citka>`> lo plise ku`
|
|||
|
` ── ────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm starting to eat an apple"`
|
|||
|
` "The present coincides with the start of my apple eating."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` citka`
|
|||
|
` ╠═══╣`
|
|||
|
` ┊`
|
|||
|
` ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses?
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <pu <pu'o `<sipna>`>>`
|
|||
|
` ── ────`
|
|||
|
` "It was before my bedtime."`
|
|||
|
` "The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` sipna`
|
|||
|
` ┊ ╠═══╣`
|
|||
|
` ┊`
|
|||
|
` ⇜┼──────────┬──────────┬⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi <ba <ba'o `<prami>`>> do`
|
|||
|
` ── ────`
|
|||
|
` "My loving you will have passed."`
|
|||
|
` "The future coincides with the aftermath of our love."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` sipna`
|
|||
|
` ╠═══╣ ┊`
|
|||
|
` ┊`
|
|||
|
` ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┼⇝`
|
|||
|
` Past Now Future`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Additional sumti places can be added to a bridi by importing them with
|
|||
|
`fi'o`:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: fi'o SELBRI SUMTI => SUMTI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The x1 place of the specified selbri is added to the bridi and filled
|
|||
|
with the specified sumti:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌────────fi'o clause───────┐`
|
|||
|
` mi citka lo titnanba ku fi'o `<jukpa>` [la rozgu ku]`
|
|||
|
` "I'm eating the cookies baked by Rose"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Stage Additions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
This can be understood in terms of the stage-play metaphor used before.
|
|||
|
`fi'o` terms act as assistant directors adding additional
|
|||
|
roles:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` STAGE:`
|
|||
|
` mi citka lo titnanba ku fi'o jukpa la rozgu ku <= actors in the play`
|
|||
|
` [eater] │ [meal] │ [cook] <= roles in the play`
|
|||
|
` ├───────┼──────────┤ ├─────────────┤`
|
|||
|
` role1 director role2 asst. director jukpa-role`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### SE Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Any selbri is compatible and that includes ones modified by SE:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` lo cinfo ku kalte fi'o se pilno lo kanla ku`
|
|||
|
` "The lion hunts with its eyes."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` lo kalte ku cizda'u fi'o te jvinu lo se citka ku`
|
|||
|
` "The hunter is a monster from the perspective of the meal."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Spatial Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Some useful selbri for prepositions stating where the bridi takes place:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` selbri │ gloss`
|
|||
|
` ───────────┼──────────────`
|
|||
|
` se zvati │ located at`
|
|||
|
` se jibni │ located near`
|
|||
|
` se nenri │ located in`
|
|||
|
` te ragve │ across from`
|
|||
|
` se gapru │ above`
|
|||
|
` se cpana │ ontop of`
|
|||
|
` se cnita │ underneath`
|
|||
|
` se sruri │ surrounding`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Temporal Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A few selbri useful for prepositions denoting when a bridi takes place:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` selbri │ gloss`
|
|||
|
` ───────────┼──────────────`
|
|||
|
` tcika │ at time`
|
|||
|
` detri │ on date`
|
|||
|
` balvi │ before`
|
|||
|
` cabna │ during`
|
|||
|
` purci │ after`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Causal Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Some selbri useful for propositions explaining how a bridi came about:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` selbri │ gloss`
|
|||
|
` ───────────┼──────────────`
|
|||
|
` mukti │ motivated by`
|
|||
|
` rinka │ caused by`
|
|||
|
` krinu │ justified by`
|
|||
|
` jalge │ with result`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### BAI Prepositions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A small number of cmavo in the BAI family can be used for specifying
|
|||
|
useful prepositions as a shortcut:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: BAI SUMTI => SUMTI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Just like `fi'o` prepositions each cmavo from the BAI family encodes a
|
|||
|
particular sumti place:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` selbri │ BAI │ gloss`
|
|||
|
` ───────────┼────────┼──────────────────`
|
|||
|
` mukti │ mu'i │ motivated by`
|
|||
|
` rinka │ ri'a │ caused by`
|
|||
|
` krinu │ ki'u │ justified by`
|
|||
|
` jalge │ ja'e │ with result`
|
|||
|
` vanbi │ va'o │ under conditions`
|
|||
|
` gasnu │ gau │ performed by`
|
|||
|
` tadji │ ta'i │ with approach`
|
|||
|
` catni │ ca'i │ by authority`
|
|||
|
` cusku │ cu'u │ said by`
|
|||
|
` se pilno │ sepi'o │ using tool`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
These can result in slightly more terse prepositional clauses:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌─────BAI clause─────┐`
|
|||
|
` lo cinfo ku kalte sepi'o [lo kanla ku]`
|
|||
|
` "The lion hunts with its eyes."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
## Miscellaneous additions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Indirect questions
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
The word `kau` in a fact "defuses" a preceding question word, and
|
|||
|
focuses that whole fact on the would-be answer.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: QUESTION_WORD kau => QUESTION_WORD`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌────indirect question───┐`
|
|||
|
` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma kau finti lo pemci ku kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ──────`
|
|||
|
` "Crystal is curious as to who invented the poem."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌──indirect question─┐`
|
|||
|
` mi djuno lo du'u do cliva mu'i ma kau kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ──────`
|
|||
|
` "I know why you left."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌─indirect question─┐`
|
|||
|
` mi na morji lo du'u xu kau misno kagni kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ──────`
|
|||
|
` "I don't remember whether or not it was a famous company."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌──indirect question──┐`
|
|||
|
` mi na jimpe lo du'u lo nabmi ku mo kau mi kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ──────`
|
|||
|
` "I don't understand what the issue has to do with me."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
(If we don't add `kau`, the whole sentence is simply a complex question
|
|||
|
asking what fills `ma`, as before:)
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma finti lo pemci ku kei ku.`
|
|||
|
` ──`
|
|||
|
` "Who is it that Crystal is curious about them inventing the poem?"`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Elliptical words
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
A couple of the classes of words we've handled have an "elliptical"
|
|||
|
member, with carry an intentionally unspecified meaning.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Using one of these means: "I assume the listener will know what I mean,
|
|||
|
so I don't have to specify exactly."
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Think of words like "you-know-what", "thingy", et
|
|||
|
cetera.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` word │ type │ gloss`
|
|||
|
` ─────────┼────────┼──────────────────────────`
|
|||
|
` zo'e │ SUMTI │ unspecified argument (equivalent to not filling a place)`
|
|||
|
` co'e │ SELBRI │ unspecified relation`
|
|||
|
` do'e │ BAI │ unspecified preposition`
|
|||
|
` ge'e │ UI │ unspecified emotion`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
These words are very useful when you don't know exactly which word to
|
|||
|
use, but it doesn't matter.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi ba cusku zo'e la rozgu ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I'll tell Rose." (unspecified x2)`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` .au do co'e`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "I want you to." (unspecified predicate)`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ciska do'e lo latmo lerfu ku`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Write (in/with/…) Latin characters."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ge'e mi cliva`
|
|||
|
` ────`
|
|||
|
` "Eh, I'm leaving." (unspecified emotion)`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Some event involving…
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
There is also a word, `tu'a`, for building facts, events, or properties
|
|||
|
that involve a sumti in some unspecified manner.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: tu'a SUMTI => SUMTI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
(Essentially, `tu'a SUMTI` is short for `lo (du'u/nu/ka) SUMTI co'e kei
|
|||
|
ku`.)
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` steba: x1 is frustrated about x2 (fact/event).`
|
|||
|
` `
|
|||
|
` mi steba lo nu stodi gunka lo jibri ku ja'e lo mabla ku kei ku`
|
|||
|
` ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm frustrated by steadily working my job with crappy results."`
|
|||
|
` `
|
|||
|
` mi steba tu'a lo jibri ku`
|
|||
|
` ────────────────`
|
|||
|
` "I'm frustrated about my job."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` lerci: x1 (event) happens late by x2's standards.`
|
|||
|
` `
|
|||
|
` lo nu lo trene ku darca lo tcana ku kei ku lerci`
|
|||
|
` ──────────────────────────────────────────`
|
|||
|
` "The train arriving at the station happens late."`
|
|||
|
` `
|
|||
|
` tu'a lo trene ku lerci`
|
|||
|
` ────────────────`
|
|||
|
` "The train is late."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Sumti raising
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Let's take a closer look at the last example.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
In Lojban, we can't say something like `lo trene ku lerci`. The only
|
|||
|
thing that can be late is some event in time, and a train is not an
|
|||
|
event\!
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
So, we use `tu'a` to "wrap" `lo trene ku` in an abstraction. (Doing this
|
|||
|
is sometimes called *sumti raising*.)
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
There is another word to help us do the same thing, namely `jai`.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` Pattern: jai SELBRI => SELBRI`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Instead of wrapping a sumti, it modifies a selbri's meaning to have a
|
|||
|
"wrapped" x1. These two are equivalent:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` x1 jai SELBRI x2 x3 x4 …`
|
|||
|
` ≡ (tu'a x1) SELBRI x2 x3 x4 …`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
This becomes more useful once we combine it with
|
|||
|
`lo`.
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` nabmi = x1 (nu) poses a problem to x2.`
|
|||
|
` jai nabmi = x1 (thing) is problematic to x2; as in, something abstract involving x1 is a problem to x2.`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` lo nabmi ku = a problem (event).`
|
|||
|
` lo jai nabmi ku = something problematic (any type).`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
### Dropping terminators
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Those `ku`s and `kei`s are really starting to stack up. You can often
|
|||
|
omit them. For example at the end of a bridi:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci ku kei ku`
|
|||
|
` → mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci`
|
|||
|
` "I try to hit the ball."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
Or at the end of an inner bridi:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` ┌───inner bridi───┐`
|
|||
|
` lo nu ponse lo fonxa ku kei ku xlali lo verba ku`
|
|||
|
` → lo nu ponse lo fonxa kei ku xlali lo verba`
|
|||
|
` "Owning a phone is bad for kids."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
You can drop `ku` if it is followed by a *neighboring* sumti in the
|
|||
|
current bridi:
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
` mi canja lo jemna ku lo solji ku do`
|
|||
|
` → mi canja lo jemna lo solji do`
|
|||
|
` "I trade gems in return for gold with you."`
|
|||
|
|
|||
|
There are other cases where it's possible, but they're not as clear-cut.
|