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+---
+title: la karda
+---
+
+
+
+# la karda
+
+> by ldlework
+
+## Preface
+
+This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language.
+
+Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as
+little as possible.
+
+That is to say:
+
+ - For each concept the most crucial aspects are presented
+ - However, some details may be glossed over or simplified
+ - Some details are only mentioned or explained by their mere
+ appearance in example sentences. Look carefully\!
+
+*Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely\!*
+
+However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the
+most immediate and expedient manner possible, a **conceptualization** of
+the language. Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical"
+and "unambiguous" to "culturally neutral". The characterization that
+this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both rational (it makes
+sense) and regular (it always works the same).
+
+From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes
+Lojban easier to learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at
+first.
+
+**Tip:**
+
+` If you take the following passages at reading speed you will likely find`
+` yourself lost in the forest very quickly. The slower you go, the better luck`
+` you'll have at absorbing what it is trying to tell you.`
+
+` In the end, if you're confused, use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll`
+` be fine!`
+
+### Special Thanks
+
+A number of people have contributed to the creation of this document in
+various ways:
+
+A general thanks goes to the entire IRC community, since it is the
+largest driver of Lojban's on-going promotion and evolution.
+
+Thanks goes to `la selpa'i ku` who's article on ZAhO was the inspiration
+for the section on "Understanding Time" and has made a number of
+corrections to errors in this document as well as helping along my own
+study of Lojban. And of course their many contributions to the language
+itself.
+
+Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections:
+
+`la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki, la tsani, la lalxu`
+
+## Core Grammar
+
+### Parts of Language
+
+In Language there are three major parts:
+
+` nouns: the things we talk about`
+
+` verbs: tell us what the nouns do`
+
+` sentences: says something using nouns and verbs`
+
+### Types of Words
+
+Lojban only has two kinds of words:
+
+` particles: short words that perform grammar functions`
+
+` verbs: tell us what nouns do`
+
+### What about Nouns?
+
+What about nouns?\!
+
+` Hold that thought.`
+
+### Standard Form
+
+Every sentence follows the form:
+
+` i x1 VERB x2 x3 xN`
+
+`i` separates multiple sentences. The first noun appears before the
+verb, additional nouns follow the verb.
+
+### Verbs Say What Nouns Do
+
+Verbs tell us what the nouns do:
+
+` dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
+
+` [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]`
+` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
+` x1 verb x2 x3`
+
+### Simple Pro-nouns
+
+Some particles act like pro-nouns:
+
+` mi - me, the speaker`
+
+` do - you, the listener`
+
+` ti - this, something nearby`
+
+### Verbs and Nouns
+
+Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do:
+
+` mi dunda ti do`
+` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
+` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
+` x1 verb x2 x3`
+
+` "I give this to you."`
+
+### Rearranging Nouns
+
+Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do:
+
+` do* dunda ti mi*`
+` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
+` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
+` x1 verb x2 x3`
+
+` "You give this to me."`
+
+### Converting Verbs to Nouns
+
+The particles `lo` and `ku` convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role:
+
+` Pattern: lo VERB ku => NOUN from x1`
+
+` dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
+` ▼`
+` verb`
+` ┌─┴─┐`
+` lo dunda ku <== [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]`
+` ─────┬───── ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
+` noun x1 verb x2 x3`
+
+`lo dunda ku` creates a noun-description which refers to "a donor"
+
+` mi dunda ti lo dunda ku`
+` [donor] │ [gift] [beneficiary]`
+` ├──────┼──────┼────────┤`
+` x1 verb x2 x3`
+
+` "I gave this to a donor."`
+
+### Complex Sentences
+
+Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed:
+
+` mlatu: x1 is a cat`
+
+` pinxe: x1 drinks beverage x2`
+
+` ladru: x1 is milk`
+
+` lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku`
+` [drinker] │ [beverage]`
+` ├──────────┼─────────┤`
+` x1 verb x2`
+
+` "A cat drinks some milk."`
+
+### The Drama of Language
+
+The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed
+by the Verb and starring the Nouns.
+
+` Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe!`
+
+The Verb Director tells us what Roles are available and What Happens:
+
+` Pinxe says, "x1 drinks beverage x2"`
+
+` Story Outline: [drinker] pinxe [beverage]`
+
+` SCRIPT:`
+` 1. A Drinker drinks!`
+` 2. A Beverage is imbibed!`
+
+` CAST:`
+` The lead Drinker : lo mlatu ku (mlatu's x1 - "a cat")`
+` The supporting Beverage: lo ladru ku (ladru's x1 - "some milk")`
+
+` STAGE:`
+` lo mlatu ku pinxe lo ladru ku <= actors in the play`
+` [drinker] │ [beverage] <= roles in the play`
+` ├──────────┼─────────┤`
+` role1 director role2`
+
+` "A cat drinks some milk."`
+
+### Rearranging Verbs
+
+The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs:
+
+` Pattern: SE VERB => VERB'`
+
+The roles of the x1 and xN nouns, what they do, is swapped in the new
+modified
+verb:
+
+` klama: x1 travels to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5`
+
+` | X1 | VERB | X2 | X3 | X4 | X5 |`
+` | traveler | klama | destination | origin | route | vehicle |`
+` x1◄ ►x2 | destination | se klama | traveler | origin | route | vehicle |`
+` x1◄ ►x3 | origin | te klama | destination | traveler | route | vehicle |`
+` x1◄ ►x4 | route | ve klama | destination | origin | traveler | vehicle |`
+` x1◄ ►x5 | vehicle | xe klama | destination | origin | route | traveler |`
+
+` se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5`
+` and so on..`
+
+### SE In Action
+
+These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main
+verb of sentences:
+
+` fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3`
+
+` vecnu: x1 sells x2 to buyer x3 for price x4`
+
+` dakfu: x1 is a knife`
+
+` lo se fraxu ku te vecnu lo dakfu ku`
+` [buyer] | [goods]`
+` └────────────┴───────────┘`
+` "The forgiven buys a knife."`
+
+` friti: x1 offers x2 to x3`
+
+` xamgu: x1 is beneficial to x2`
+
+` ginka: x1 is an encampment of x2`
+
+` lo se friti ku xamgu lo se ginka ku`
+` [benefit] | [beneficiary]`
+` └───────────┴───────────┘`
+` "The offering is good for the campers."`
+
+### FA Labels
+
+The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering
+of sentences without modifying the verb:
+
+` Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN'`
+
+` fa : x1 Each particle from the FA family`
+` fe : x2 simply specifies what the following`
+` fi : x3 noun is doing in the sentence. In`
+` fo : x4 other words which role from the verb`
+` fu : x5 it fills.`
+
+This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb:
+
+` dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you"`
+
+Or skip some places entirely:
+
+` mi dunda fi do - "I donate to you"`
+
+Counting resumes from any FA particle:
+
+` fe ti dunda fa mi do - "I donate this to you"`
+` ──┬── ──┬── ─┐`
+` x2 x1 x3`
+
+### Cmavo and Brivla
+
+Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary:
+
+` "cmavo" - mi, ti, do, lo, ku`
+` - small word that performs a grammatical function`
+` - categorized into families`
+
+` "brivla" : dunda, klama, mlatu, ladru`
+` - a word that produces a grammatical verb`
+` - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles`
+
+### Selbri Sumti and Bridi
+
+It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in
+lojban sentences:
+
+` "selbri" - the verb phrases central to sentences and nouns`
+
+` "sumti" - the noun phrases that take on semantic roles`
+
+` "bridi" - the combination of a selbri and its sumti`
+
+`LEGEND:`
+` <> - selbri verb`
+` [] - sumti noun`
+` {} - bridi statement`
+
+Notice how selbri verb phrases appear throughout:
+
+` lo `> ku `` lo `` ku`
+
+Sumti nouns are placed around the root selbri:
+
+` [lo se jdice ku] nandu [lo sonci ku]`
+
+And the whole structure, a selbri with its sumti, is a bridi:
+
+` {lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku}`
+
+### Tanru
+
+By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a `tanru` or
+compound-selbri verb can be created:
+
+` mi <`` ``> lo `` ku`
+` "I want-eat an apple."`
+
+Two brivla `cidja` and `dunda` come together below to create a
+compound-selbri inside a sumti:
+
+` Simple Selbri`
+` ┌───┴───┐`
+` lo <`` ``> ku `` lo `` ku`
+` └───────┬───────┘`
+` Selbri Tanru`
+
+` "The food-donor loves people."`
+
+But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or tanru?
+
+Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However,
+basic structure of the definition is that of the **right most** selbri
+component:
+
+` gleki : x1 is happy about x2`
+
+` cadzu : x1 walks on surface x2`
+
+` gleki cadzu : x1 happy-walks on surface x2`
+
+` What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure!`
+
+## Conversation
+
+### Proper Nouns
+
+Proper nouns are created by using `la` instead of `lo`:
+
+` mi prami lo rozgu ku`
+` ── ──`
+` "I love roses."`
+
+` mi prami la rozgu ku`
+` ── ──`
+` "I love Rose."`
+
+` Names are sumti just like any other.`
+
+### Introductions
+
+Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo `mi'e`:
+
+` Pattern: mi'e NAME`
+
+` mi'e la rozgu ku`
+` ────`
+` "I'm Rose."`
+
+### Greetings
+
+Greeting another person is done with the cmavo `coi`:
+
+` Pattern: coi SUMTI`
+
+` coi la rozgu ku`
+` ───`
+` "Hello, Rose."`
+
+` coi lo tadni ku`
+` ───`
+` "Hello, student"`
+
+` coi do`
+` ───`
+` "Hello, you."`
+
+` Or just, "coi"`
+
+### Farewells
+
+Farewells are offered with the cmavo `co'o`:
+
+` Pattern: co'o SUMTI`
+
+` co'o la rozgu ku`
+` ────`
+` "Goodbye, Rose."`
+
+### Requesting Attention
+
+Requests for attention are made with the cmavo `ju'i`:
+
+` Pattern: ju'i SUMTI`
+
+` ju'i la rozgu ku`
+` ───`
+` "Hey, Rose."`
+
+If multiple listeners paying attention you can address them individually
+with `doi`:
+
+` Pattern: doi SUMTI`
+` doi la mirli ku ko mipri`
+` ───`
+` "Keep it secret, Moose"`
+
+### Yes No Questions
+
+"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the `xu` cmavo:
+
+` i xu do citka lo plise ku`
+` ──`
+` "Did you eat an apple?"`
+
+Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a
+statement the overall structure hasn't changed.
+
+The `xu` is placed after the sentence separator `i` so as to apply to
+the whole sentence equally. By placing `xu` after a specific word
+emphasis can be placed on it:
+
+` i do citka lo xu plise ku`
+` ──`
+` "Was it an apple you ate?""`
+
+### Yes No Answers
+
+"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies:
+
+` In the affirmative, "go'i" is used:`
+` Q: xu do citka lo plise ku`
+` A: go'i`
+` ───`
+` The denial is supplied by: na go'i`
+
+### Sumti Questions
+
+Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the `ma` cmavo in place
+of the sumti in question.
+
+` do citka ma`
+` ──`
+` "What did you eat?"`
+
+` ma catra ma`
+` ── ──`
+` "Who killed who?"`
+
+To answer sumti questions simply state what fills the missing place:
+
+` lo plise ku`
+
+Or restate the question with the places filled in:
+
+` do catra mi`
+
+### Selbri Questions
+
+Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the `mo` cmavo in place
+of the selbri in question.
+
+` mo fa mi do ti`
+` ──`
+` "What are we doing with this?"`
+
+` do mo`
+` ──`
+` "You are/doing what?"`
+
+` do mo fengu mi`
+` ──`
+` "What kind of angry are you at me?"`
+
+### Attitude Questions
+
+A special kind of question using the cmavo `pei` asks the listener to
+share their feelings or disposition about some topic:
+
+` i pei mi cliva`
+` ───`
+` "How do you feel about me leaving?"`
+
+"pei" is another word which can direct its emphasis by way of
+right-attachment:
+
+` i mi jukpa lo jipci ku pei`
+` ───`
+` "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook.`
+
+### Attitude Cmavo
+
+In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer
+to `pei` can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals".
+
+` ui - "I'm happy"`
+
+` a'o - "I hope"`
+
+` i'e - "I approve"`
+
+There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another
+some aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the
+attitudinal is appears in.
+
+` i ui do prami mi`
+` ──`
+` "You love me, and I'm happy about it."`
+
+` i a'o do snada`
+` ───`
+` "I'm hopeful you succeed."`
+
+Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of
+speech they attach to:
+
+` do pinxe lo birje ku e'u`
+` ───`
+` "I suggest beer to be what you drink."`
+
+### Attitude Ranges
+
+Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can
+be altered from the default.
+
+Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, `nai` and
+other cmavo can affect the sense of the UI cmavo:
+
+` ui cai - "I'm happy as possible"`
+` ui sai - "I'm very happy"`
+` ui - "I'm happy"`
+` ui ru'e - "I'm kinda/sorta happy"`
+` ui cu'i - "I'm neutral in my happiness"`
+` ui nai - "I'm unhappy"`
+` ui nai sai - "I'm very unhappy"`
+
+and so on...
+
+### Evidential Cmavo
+
+A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an
+epistemological claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or
+state whatever it is they are saying:
+
+` i ti'e do nelci mi`
+` ────`
+` "I hear rumored that you like me."`
+
+` i pe'i lo plise ku xamgu`
+` ────`
+` "It is my opinion that apples are beneficial."`
+
+` i za'a do mutce xagji`
+` ────`
+` "I observe that you are very hungry."`
+
+` i ba'a la rozgu ku zvati lo zdani ku`
+` ────`
+` "I expect Rose is at the house."`
+
+### Discursive Cmavo
+
+Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express
+the point or purpose of a part of or a whole statement.
+
+` i do citka lo titla ku po'o`
+` ────`
+` "You only eat sweets."`
+
+` i ji'a mi nitcu lo jdini ku`
+` ────`
+` "Also, I need money."`
+
+` i si'a mi terpa lo jukni ku`
+` ────`
+` "Similarly, I'm afraid of spiders."`
+
+` i ku'i lo jenmi ku daspo`
+` ────`
+` "However, armys are destructive."`
+
+### Humor
+
+Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation:
+
+Sarcasm:
+
+` i xo'o lo se platu ku banli`
+` ────`
+` "Oh jeeze, great plan."`
+
+` i xo'o nai lo skaci ku melbi`
+` ────────`
+` "Seriously, that skirt is beautiful."`
+
+Levity:
+
+` i zo'o se ckaji do`
+` ────`
+` "Ho! Typical you."`
+
+` i zo'o nai mi nelci lo cutci`
+` ────`
+` "I do like these shoes..."`
+
+Amusement:
+
+` i u'i xu do mulno`
+` ───`
+` "Haha, are you done yet?"`
+
+` i u'i nai xu do mulno`
+` ───────`
+` "Yea.. are you done yet?"`
+
+### Changing the Subject
+
+If things get tense you can always change the subject with `ta'o`:
+
+` i ta'o do klama ma`
+` ────`
+` "By the way, where are you going?"`
+
+You can also return to a previous topic by adding `nai`:
+
+` i ta'o nai mi'o casnu ma`
+` ────────`
+` "Returning, what were we discussing?"`
+
+### Requests and Commands
+
+Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your
+interlocutor to leave:
+
+` i e'o do cliva`
+` ───`
+` "Please, you leave."`
+
+Or if they have been particularly offensive you might demand it\!
+
+` i ko cliva`
+` ──`
+` "I implore you to leave."`
+
+` Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do".`
+
+## Sumti Manipulation
+
+### Saying "and" and "or"
+
+To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective
+cmavo `je` can be used:
+
+` Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI'`
+
+` i mi nelci [[lo plise ku] je [lo perli ku]]`
+` ──`
+` "I like apples and pears."`
+
+Similarly, `ja` can be used for "or":
+
+` i ko cuxna [[lo dakfu ku] ja [lo mruli ku]]`
+` ──`
+` "Pick the knife or the spear"`
+
+### Grouping
+
+To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together,
+`jo'u` can be used:
+
+` Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI'`
+
+` i [[mi] jo'u [do]] bevri lo pipno`
+` ────`
+` "You and I carry the piano"`
+
+` i mi se catra [[lo fagri ku] jo'u [lo bisli ku]]`
+` ────`
+` "I was killed by fire and ice."`
+
+### Ownership
+
+To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo `po`
+is used:
+
+` Pattern: SUMTI po SUMTI => SUMTI'`
+
+` i [[lo karce ku] po [mi]] spofu`
+` ──`
+` "My car is broken."`
+
+` i ko cpacu [[lo ckiku ku] po [do]]`
+` ──`
+` "Go get your keys."`
+
+### Association
+
+For a weaker association than ownership you can use `pe`:
+
+` Pattern: SUMTI pe SUMTI => SUMTI'`
+
+` i mi vasxu [[lo vacri ku] pe [do]]`
+` ──`
+` "I'm breathing your air."`
+
+` i ko zutse [[lo stizu ku] pe [mi]]`
+` ──`
+` "Sit in my chair."`
+
+### Pluralities
+
+To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before
+the sumti:
+
+` Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI'`
+
+` Numbers:`
+` no pa re ci vo mu xa ze bi so`
+` 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9`
+
+` i mi viska [mu [lo bakni ku]]`
+` ──`
+` "I see 5 cows."`
+
+` i mi se raktu [so so [lo nabmi ku]]`
+` ─────`
+` "I am troubled by 99 problems."`
+
+### Subjective Numbers
+
+Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy:
+
+` i xu do citka [du'e [lo plise ku]]`
+` ────`
+` "Did you eat too many apples?"`
+
+` so'u lo plise ku - "a few apples"`
+` so'o lo plise ku - "several apples"`
+` so'i lo plise ku - "many apples"`
+` so'e lo plise ku - "most of the apples"`
+` ro lo plise ku - "all the apples"`
+` rau lo plise ku - "enough apples"`
+` mo'a lo plise ku - "not enough apples"`
+` da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples"`
+
+## Selbri Manipulation
+
+### Negation and Affirmation
+
+Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example
+negation is done with `na`:
+
+` Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI'`
+
+` i mi `>`
+` ──`
+` "I'm not hungry"`
+
+` On the flip-side you can say something is certain:`
+
+` i mi `>`
+` ────`
+` "I am definitely hungry"`
+
+### Scaling Relevance
+
+Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri
+is applied:
+
+` i mi `>`
+` ────`
+` "I'm not really that hungry."`
+
+` i mi `>`
+` ────`
+` "I'm full!"`
+
+### Saying "and" and "or"
+
+Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective
+words:
+
+` i mi <`` je ``>`
+` ──`
+` "I'm tired and hungry"`
+
+` i mi'o e'u <`` ja ``>.`
+` ──`
+` "We should eat or leave."`
+
+### Tense
+
+While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified
+to have such tense:
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I saw you."`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I see you."`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I will see you."`
+
+### Temporal Distance
+
+In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided:
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I just saw you!"`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I saw you a while ago."`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "It has been a long while since I've seen you."`
+
+### Proximity
+
+Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity:
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I saw you right here!"`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I saw you nearby."`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ──`
+` "I saw you elsewhere."`
+
+### Preloading
+
+Selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti, removing a sumti place from
+the definition, with the `be` cmavo:
+
+` Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'`
+
+` dunda : x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3`
+` dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2`
+
+By default `be` injects a sumti into the x2 place, but the FA family can
+be used to specify which place should be filled:
+
+` vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state`
+
+Multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by `bei`:
+
+` vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state`
+
+### Preloaded Sumti
+
+Note that `be` forms a new selbri even though it incorporates a sumti:
+
+` ┌──────new selbri──────────┐`
+` <`` be [lo xarci ku]> = x1 sells weapons to x2`
+` │ │`
+` base selbri injected sumti`
+
+This is a little strange when used as the main verb of a sentence:
+
+` (who) (sells guns) (the state)`
+` ma `` lo jecta ku`
+` [seller] │ [buyer]`
+` └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘`
+
+`lo xarci ku` could just have been provided as x2 to a normal `vecnu`.
+The `be` appears unnessecary. However, this is very useful for creating
+interesting sumti\!
+
+` ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐`
+` mi tavla [lo <`` be [lo xarci ku]> ku]`
+` "I talk to the seller of weapons.`
+
+` ko na lebna [lo <`` be fi [mi]> ku]`
+` "Don't you take ideas of mine."`
+
+This is far more explicit than using `pe` or `po`.
+
+## Subordination
+
+### Facts
+
+Similar to the transformation of selbri into sumti the same can be done
+for whole bridi into selbri with the help of `du'u` and `kei`:
+
+` Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
+
+The definition of such a selbri is something like:
+
+` x1 is the fact represented by the inner bridi`
+
+` ┌───fact selbri────┐`
+` du'u do prami mi kei = x1 is the fact that: you love me`
+` └─────┬─────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+Adding `lo` and `ku`, the selbri is transformed into a sumti allowing
+one to talk about the fact inside:
+
+` [lo ku] = "the fact that you love me"`
+
+These nested fact sumti can be used as any other:
+
+` ┌───fact selbri────┐`
+` mi djuno [lo du'u do prami mi kei ku]`
+` └─────┬─────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+` "I know that you love me."`
+
+### Events
+
+Where `du'u` gets at the truth of a matter, `nu` can emphasize the time
+and location in which a bridi takes place:
+
+` Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
+
+The definition of such a selbri is something like:
+
+` x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi`
+
+` ┌──fact selbri───┐`
+` nu do speni mi kei = x1 is the event of: you are married to me`
+` └─────┬─────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+Just like with `du'u` these `nu` selbri can be turned into sumti with
+`lo` and `ku`:
+
+` [lo ku] = "the event of our marriage"`
+
+And can be incorporated into larger sentences:
+
+` ┌──fact selbri───┐`
+` mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku]`
+` └─────┬─────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+` "I desire our marriage."`
+
+### Properties
+
+A third word, `ka` can also create a selbri from a bridi much like
+`du'u` and `nu`:
+
+` Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI`
+
+The bridi must contain at least one `ce'u` sumti:
+
+` ┌───────property selbri────────┐`
+` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
+` └────────────┬────────────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+The `ce'u` has no meaning of its own. The selbri that receives the
+property specifies what it refers to. In this case, it is `cnici` taking
+the property as its x2.
+
+The definition of `cnici` is:
+
+` x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property x2`
+
+And so it is the x1, or `mi`, who is orderly in the eating of cookies.
+
+` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
+` └───────┬────────┘`
+` bound sumti`
+
+` "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."`
+
+The `ce'u` can appear anywhere in the inner bridi:
+
+` do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]`
+` └──────────────┬─────────────────┘`
+` bound sumti`
+
+` "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."`
+
+Some selbri words make comparative statements:
+
+` zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3`
+
+` do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]`
+` └────────────┬────────────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+` do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku`
+
+` "You are more than me in the eating of cookies."`
+` "You eat more cookies than me."`
+
+Numerous property relations exist within the Lojban lexicon.
+
+### Relative Phrases
+
+Additional information about a sumti can be provided by attaching a
+bridi to it with `noi`:
+
+` Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'`
+
+Similarly to the properties created with `ka`, `noi` bridi have a
+stand-in word `ke'a`:
+
+` ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o`
+` └──────┬──────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+` Meet Rose, who I love.`
+
+The `noi` bridi is attached to `la rozgu ku` and so it is her to whom
+`ke'a` refers to.
+
+If the information is not merely incidental but nessecary to discern
+which thing is being talking about `poi` can be used instead:
+
+` ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o`
+` └──────┬──────┘`
+` inner bridi`
+
+` Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.)`
+
+## Understanding Time
+
+The basic tenses `pu`, `ca` and `ba` were covered previously but there
+is a bit more to say about time.
+
+### Basic Tenses
+
+The tense for stating something is currently happening is `ca`:
+
+` mi ca citka`
+` ──`
+` "I am currently eating."`
+
+Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is:
+
+` "The present coincides with my eating."`
+
+` citka`
+` ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+How about the other tenses?
+
+` mi pu pensi`
+` ──`
+` "I was thinking."`
+
+` "The past coincides with my thinking."`
+
+` pensi`
+` ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+` do ba jimpe`
+` ──`
+` "You will understand."`
+
+` "The future coincides with your understanding."`
+
+` jimpe`
+` ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+### Event Contours
+
+All events have a "temporal extent" or lifetime. It is often useful to
+describe the various events "within" an event. The ZAhO family of tenses
+can be used for accessing
+them:
+
+` ╎ pu'o: before`
+`pu'o ═══════════╣ ╠════════════ ba'o ╎ co'a: the outset`
+` co'a de'a di'a co'u ╎ de'a: break`
+` ╎ di'a: resumption`
+` └───────────┬─────────────┘ ╎ co'u: finish`
+` co'i ╎ ba'o: after`
+` ╎ co'i: for the duration`
+
+Like basic tenses, they modify a selbri to create a new one:
+
+` Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI`
+
+` mi `> lo plise ku`
+` ────`
+` "I'm starting to eat an apple."`
+
+` mi pacna lo nu `> kei ku`
+` ────`
+` "I wish for it to finish raining."`
+
+` ko `>`
+` ────`
+` "Take a break from studying."`
+
+` mi `>`
+` ────`
+` "Its before my bedtime."`
+
+` mi `> do`
+` ────`
+` "My loving you has passed.""`
+
+### Tensed Contours
+
+If no basic tense is provided, `ca` or present-tense is assumed:
+
+` mi `> lo plise ku`
+` ── ────`
+` "I'm starting to eat an apple"`
+` "The present coincides with the start of my apple eating."`
+
+` citka`
+` ╠═══╣`
+` ┊`
+` ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses?
+
+` mi `>>`
+` ── ────`
+` "It was before my bedtime."`
+` "The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime."`
+
+` sipna`
+` ┊ ╠═══╣`
+` ┊`
+` ⇜┼──────────┬──────────┬⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+` mi `>> do`
+` ── ────`
+` "My loving you will have passed."`
+` "The future coincides with the aftermath of our love."`
+
+` sipna`
+` ╠═══╣ ┊`
+` ┊`
+` ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┼⇝`
+` Past Now Future`
+
+## Prepositions
+
+Additional sumti places can be added to a bridi by importing them with
+`fi'o`:
+
+` Pattern: fi'o SELBRI SUMTI => SUMTI`
+
+The x1 place of the specified selbri is added to the bridi and filled
+with the specified sumti:
+
+` ┌────────fi'o clause───────┐`
+` mi citka lo titnanba ku fi'o `` [la rozgu ku]`
+` "I'm eating the cookies baked by Rose"`
+
+### Stage Additions
+
+This can be understood in terms of the stage-play metaphor used before.
+`fi'o` terms act as assistant directors adding additional
+roles:
+
+` STAGE:`
+` mi citka lo titnanba ku fi'o jukpa la rozgu ku <= actors in the play`
+` [eater] │ [meal] │ [cook] <= roles in the play`
+` ├───────┼──────────┤ ├─────────────┤`
+` role1 director role2 asst. director jukpa-role`
+
+### SE Prepositions
+
+Any selbri is compatible and that includes ones modified by SE:
+
+` lo cinfo ku kalte fi'o se pilno lo kanla ku`
+` "The lion hunts with its eyes."`
+
+` lo kalte ku cizda'u fi'o te jvinu lo se citka ku`
+` "The hunter is a monster from the perspective of the meal."`
+
+### Spatial Prepositions
+
+Some useful selbri for prepositions stating where the bridi takes place:
+
+` selbri │ gloss`
+` ───────────┼──────────────`
+` se zvati │ located at`
+` se jibni │ located near`
+` se nenri │ located in`
+` te ragve │ across from`
+` se gapru │ above`
+` se cpana │ ontop of`
+` se cnita │ underneath`
+` se sruri │ surrounding`
+
+### Temporal Prepositions
+
+A few selbri useful for prepositions denoting when a bridi takes place:
+
+` selbri │ gloss`
+` ───────────┼──────────────`
+` tcika │ at time`
+` detri │ on date`
+` balvi │ before`
+` cabna │ during`
+` purci │ after`
+
+### Causal Prepositions
+
+Some selbri useful for propositions explaining how a bridi came about:
+
+` selbri │ gloss`
+` ───────────┼──────────────`
+` mukti │ motivated by`
+` rinka │ caused by`
+` krinu │ justified by`
+` jalge │ with result`
+
+### BAI Prepositions
+
+A small number of cmavo in the BAI family can be used for specifying
+useful prepositions as a shortcut:
+
+` Pattern: BAI SUMTI => SUMTI`
+
+Just like `fi'o` prepositions each cmavo from the BAI family encodes a
+particular sumti place:
+
+` selbri │ BAI │ gloss`
+` ───────────┼────────┼──────────────────`
+` mukti │ mu'i │ motivated by`
+` rinka │ ri'a │ caused by`
+` krinu │ ki'u │ justified by`
+` jalge │ ja'e │ with result`
+` vanbi │ va'o │ under conditions`
+` gasnu │ gau │ performed by`
+` tadji │ ta'i │ with approach`
+` catni │ ca'i │ by authority`
+` cusku │ cu'u │ said by`
+` se pilno │ sepi'o │ using tool`
+
+These can result in slightly more terse prepositional clauses:
+
+` ┌─────BAI clause─────┐`
+` lo cinfo ku kalte sepi'o [lo kanla ku]`
+` "The lion hunts with its eyes."`
+
+## Miscellaneous additions
+
+### Indirect questions
+
+The word `kau` in a fact "defuses" a preceding question word, and
+focuses that whole fact on the would-be answer.
+
+` Pattern: QUESTION_WORD kau => QUESTION_WORD`
+
+` ┌────indirect question───┐`
+` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma kau finti lo pemci ku kei ku`
+` ──────`
+` "Crystal is curious as to who invented the poem."`
+
+` ┌──indirect question─┐`
+` mi djuno lo du'u do cliva mu'i ma kau kei ku`
+` ──────`
+` "I know why you left."`
+
+` ┌─indirect question─┐`
+` mi na morji lo du'u xu kau misno kagni kei ku`
+` ──────`
+` "I don't remember whether or not it was a famous company."`
+
+` ┌──indirect question──┐`
+` mi na jimpe lo du'u lo nabmi ku mo kau mi kei ku`
+` ──────`
+` "I don't understand what the issue has to do with me."`
+
+(If we don't add `kau`, the whole sentence is simply a complex question
+asking what fills `ma`, as before:)
+
+` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma finti lo pemci ku kei ku.`
+` ──`
+` "Who is it that Crystal is curious about them inventing the poem?"`
+
+### Elliptical words
+
+A couple of the classes of words we've handled have an "elliptical"
+member, with carry an intentionally unspecified meaning.
+
+Using one of these means: "I assume the listener will know what I mean,
+so I don't have to specify exactly."
+
+Think of words like "you-know-what", "thingy", et
+cetera.
+
+` word │ type │ gloss`
+` ─────────┼────────┼──────────────────────────`
+` zo'e │ SUMTI │ unspecified argument (equivalent to not filling a place)`
+` co'e │ SELBRI │ unspecified relation`
+` do'e │ BAI │ unspecified preposition`
+` ge'e │ UI │ unspecified emotion`
+
+These words are very useful when you don't know exactly which word to
+use, but it doesn't matter.
+
+` mi ba cusku zo'e la rozgu ku`
+` ────`
+` "I'll tell Rose." (unspecified x2)`
+
+` .au do co'e`
+` ────`
+` "I want you to." (unspecified predicate)`
+
+` ciska do'e lo latmo lerfu ku`
+` ────`
+` "Write (in/with/…) Latin characters."`
+
+` ge'e mi cliva`
+` ────`
+` "Eh, I'm leaving." (unspecified emotion)`
+
+### Some event involving…
+
+There is also a word, `tu'a`, for building facts, events, or properties
+that involve a sumti in some unspecified manner.
+
+` Pattern: tu'a SUMTI => SUMTI`
+
+(Essentially, `tu'a SUMTI` is short for `lo (du'u/nu/ka) SUMTI co'e kei
+ku`.)
+
+` steba: x1 is frustrated about x2 (fact/event).`
+` `
+` mi steba lo nu stodi gunka lo jibri ku ja'e lo mabla ku kei ku`
+` ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────`
+` "I'm frustrated by steadily working my job with crappy results."`
+` `
+` mi steba tu'a lo jibri ku`
+` ────────────────`
+` "I'm frustrated about my job."`
+
+` lerci: x1 (event) happens late by x2's standards.`
+` `
+` lo nu lo trene ku darca lo tcana ku kei ku lerci`
+` ──────────────────────────────────────────`
+` "The train arriving at the station happens late."`
+` `
+` tu'a lo trene ku lerci`
+` ────────────────`
+` "The train is late."`
+
+### Sumti raising
+
+Let's take a closer look at the last example.
+
+In Lojban, we can't say something like `lo trene ku lerci`. The only
+thing that can be late is some event in time, and a train is not an
+event\!
+
+So, we use `tu'a` to "wrap" `lo trene ku` in an abstraction. (Doing this
+is sometimes called *sumti raising*.)
+
+There is another word to help us do the same thing, namely `jai`.
+
+` Pattern: jai SELBRI => SELBRI`
+
+Instead of wrapping a sumti, it modifies a selbri's meaning to have a
+"wrapped" x1. These two are equivalent:
+
+` x1 jai SELBRI x2 x3 x4 …`
+` ≡ (tu'a x1) SELBRI x2 x3 x4 …`
+
+This becomes more useful once we combine it with
+`lo`.
+
+` nabmi = x1 (nu) poses a problem to x2.`
+` jai nabmi = x1 (thing) is problematic to x2; as in, something abstract involving x1 is a problem to x2.`
+
+` lo nabmi ku = a problem (event).`
+` lo jai nabmi ku = something problematic (any type).`
+
+### Dropping terminators
+
+Those `ku`s and `kei`s are really starting to stack up. You can often
+omit them. For example at the end of a bridi:
+
+` mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci ku kei ku`
+` → mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci`
+` "I try to hit the ball."`
+
+Or at the end of an inner bridi:
+
+` ┌───inner bridi───┐`
+` lo nu ponse lo fonxa ku kei ku xlali lo verba ku`
+` → lo nu ponse lo fonxa kei ku xlali lo verba`
+` "Owning a phone is bad for kids."`
+
+You can drop `ku` if it is followed by a *neighboring* sumti in the
+current bridi:
+
+` mi canja lo jemna ku lo solji ku do`
+` → mi canja lo jemna lo solji do`
+` "I trade gems in return for gold with you."`
+
+There are other cases where it's possible, but they're not as clear-cut.