From 1b46ed6cc167904d1c28cd3b326e08ac7d562efe Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Christine Dodrill Date: Tue, 27 Nov 2018 07:35:13 -0800 Subject: [PATCH] .i la karda cu pu jmina --- papri/la_karda.md | 1437 +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 1437 insertions(+) create mode 100644 papri/la_karda.md diff --git a/papri/la_karda.md b/papri/la_karda.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2959d9b --- /dev/null +++ b/papri/la_karda.md @@ -0,0 +1,1437 @@ +--- +title: la karda +--- + + + +# la karda + +> by ldlework + +## Preface + +This is a distilled overview of the Lojban language. + +Major concepts of the language are introduced by saying as much with as +little as possible. + +That is to say: + + - For each concept the most crucial aspects are presented + - However, some details may be glossed over or simplified + - Some details are only mentioned or explained by their mere + appearance in example sentences. Look carefully\! + +*Finally, some aspects of Lojban are omitted entirely\!* + +However incomplete - the goal of the following is to present, in the +most immediate and expedient manner possible, a **conceptualization** of +the language. Lojban is characterized in many ways from being "logical" +and "unambiguous" to "culturally neutral". The characterization that +this text aims to reveal is that Lojban is both rational (it makes +sense) and regular (it always works the same). + +From this rationality and regularity comes a simplicity that makes +Lojban easier to learn than anyone really ever expects it to be at +first. + +**Tip:** + +`   If you take the following passages at reading speed you will likely find` +`   yourself lost in the forest very quickly. The slower you go, the better luck` +`   you'll have at absorbing what it is trying to tell you.` + +`   In the end, if you're confused, use that as inspiration to dig deeper and you'll` +`   be fine!` + +### Special Thanks + +A number of people have contributed to the creation of this document in +various ways: + +A general thanks goes to the entire IRC community, since it is the +largest driver of Lojban's on-going promotion and evolution. + +Thanks goes to `la selpa'i ku` who's article on ZAhO was the inspiration +for the section on "Understanding Time" and has made a number of +corrections to errors in this document as well as helping along my own +study of Lojban. And of course their many contributions to the language +itself. + +Additional thanks to those who have contributed minor corrections: + +`la ilmen, la cirko, la kalmari, la gleki, la tsani, la lalxu` + +## Core Grammar + +### Parts of Language + +In Language there are three major parts: + +` nouns: the things we talk about` + +` verbs: tell us what the nouns do` + +` sentences: says something using nouns and verbs` + +### Types of Words + +Lojban only has two kinds of words: + +` particles: short words that perform grammar functions` + +` verbs: tell us what nouns do` + +### What about Nouns? + +What about nouns?\! + +` Hold that thought.` + +### Standard Form + +Every sentence follows the form: + +` i x1 VERB x2 x3 xN` + +`i` separates multiple sentences. The first noun appears before the +verb, additional nouns follow the verb. + +### Verbs Say What Nouns Do + +Verbs tell us what the nouns do: + +` dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3` + +` [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]` +`    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤` +`   x1    verb     x2       x3` + +### Simple Pro-nouns + +Some particles act like pro-nouns: + +` mi - me, the speaker` + +` do - you, the listener` + +` ti - this, something nearby` + +### Verbs and Nouns + +Nouns can be put in the places and the verb says what they do: + +`   mi    dunda   ti        do` +` [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]` +`    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤` +`   x1    verb     x2       x3` + +` "I give this to you."` + +### Rearranging Nouns + +Putting the nouns into different places changes what they do: + +`   do*   dunda   ti        mi*` +` [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]` +`    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤` +`   x1    verb     x2       x3` + +` "You give this to me."` + +### Converting Verbs to Nouns + +The particles `lo` and `ku` convert verbs to nouns from the x1 role: + +` Pattern: lo VERB ku => NOUN from x1` + +`    dunda: x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3` +`      ▼` +`    verb` +`    ┌─┴─┐` +` lo dunda ku <== [donor] dunda [gift] [benefactor]` +` ─────┬─────       ├──────┼──────┼────────┤` +`     noun         x1    verb     x2       x3` + +`lo dunda ku` creates a noun-description which refers to "a donor" + +`   mi    dunda   ti    lo dunda ku` +` [donor]   │   [gift] [beneficiary]` +`    ├──────┼──────┼────────┤` +`   x1    verb     x2       x3` + +` "I gave this to a donor."` + +### Complex Sentences + +Using multiple verbs, complex sentences can be formed: + +` mlatu: x1 is a cat` + +` pinxe: x1 drinks beverage x2` + +` ladru: x1 is milk` + +` lo mlatu ku   pinxe   lo ladru ku` +`  [drinker]      │     [beverage]` +`      ├──────────┼─────────┤` +`     x1        verb        x2` + +`     "A cat drinks some milk."` + +### The Drama of Language + +The previous example can be thought of as a kind of stage-play, directed +by the Verb and starring the Nouns. + +` Breakfast Time, a play by Pinxe!` + +The Verb Director tells us what Roles are available and What Happens: + +` Pinxe says, "x1 drinks beverage x2"` + +` Story Outline: [drinker] pinxe [beverage]` + +` SCRIPT:` +`   1. A Drinker drinks!` +`   2. A Beverage is imbibed!` + +` CAST:` +`   The lead Drinker       : lo mlatu ku (mlatu's x1 - "a cat")` +`   The supporting Beverage: lo ladru ku (ladru's x1 - "some milk")` + +` STAGE:` +`   lo mlatu ku   pinxe   lo ladru ku    <= actors in the play` +`    [drinker]      │     [beverage]     <= roles in the play` +`        ├──────────┼─────────┤` +`      role1    director    role2` + +`       "A cat drinks some milk."` + +### Rearranging Verbs + +The particles of the SE family rearrange verbs: + +` Pattern: SE VERB => VERB'` + +The roles of the x1 and xN nouns, what they do, is swapped in the new +modified +verb: + +` klama: x1 travels to destination x2 from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5` + +`            | X1          | VERB     | X2          | X3        | X4        | X5        |` +`            | traveler    | klama    | destination | origin    | route     | vehicle   |` +`   x1◄ ►x2  | destination | se klama | traveler    | origin    | route     | vehicle   |` +`   x1◄ ►x3  | origin      | te klama | destination | traveler  | route     | vehicle   |` +`   x1◄ ►x4  | route       | ve klama | destination | origin    | traveler  | vehicle   |` +`   x1◄ ►x5  | vehicle     | xe klama | destination | origin    | route     | traveler  |` + +` se klama: to destination x1, traveler x2 goes from origin x3 via route x4 in vehicle x5` +` and so on..` + +### SE In Action + +These SE modified verbs are useful both in making nouns and as the main +verb of sentences: + +` fraxu: x1 forgives x2 for x3` + +` vecnu: x1 sells x2 to buyer x3 for price x4` + +` dakfu: x1 is a knife` + +` lo se fraxu ku  te vecnu   lo dakfu ku` +`    [buyer]         |        [goods]` +`       └────────────┴───────────┘` +`      "The forgiven buys a knife."` + +` friti: x1 offers x2 to x3` + +` xamgu: x1 is beneficial to x2` + +` ginka: x1 is an encampment of x2` + +` lo se friti ku  xamgu   lo se ginka ku` +`   [benefit]       |      [beneficiary]` +`       └───────────┴───────────┘` +`  "The offering is good for the campers."` + +### FA Labels + +The FA family of particles allows for breaking the default noun ordering +of sentences without modifying the verb: + +` Pattern: FA NOUN => NOUN'` + +` fa : x1   Each particle from the FA family` +` fe : x2   simply specifies what the following` +` fi : x3   noun is doing in the sentence. In` +` fo : x4   other words which role from the verb` +` fu : x5   it fills.` + +This allows putting all of the nouns after the verb: + +` dunda fa mi ti do - "I donate this to you"` + +Or skip some places entirely: + +` mi dunda fi do - "I donate to you"` + +Counting resumes from any FA particle: + +` fe ti dunda fa mi do - "I donate this to you"` +` ──┬──       ──┬── ─┐` +`  x2          x1   x3` + +### Cmavo and Brivla + +Lojban has names for the two kinds of words that make up its dictionary: + +` "cmavo" - mi, ti, do, lo, ku` +`    - small word that performs a grammatical function` +`    - categorized into families` + +` "brivla" : dunda, klama, mlatu, ladru` +`    - a word that produces a grammatical verb` +`    - has a definition with 1 or more noun roles` + +### Selbri Sumti and Bridi + +It also has names for the different parts of speech that come to life in +lojban sentences: + +` "selbri" - the verb phrases central to sentences and nouns` + +` "sumti" - the noun phrases that take on semantic roles` + +` "bridi" - the combination of a selbri and its sumti` + +`LEGEND:` +`   <> - selbri verb` +`   [] - sumti noun` +`   {} - bridi statement` + +Notice how selbri verb phrases appear throughout: + +` lo `> ku `` lo `` ku` + +Sumti nouns are placed around the root selbri: + +` [lo se jdice ku] nandu [lo sonci ku]` + +And the whole structure, a selbri with its sumti, is a bridi: + +` {lo se jdice ku nandu lo sonci ku}` + +### Tanru + +By combining multiple consecutive independent selbri, a `tanru` or +compound-selbri verb can be created: + +` mi <`` ``> lo `` ku` +` "I want-eat an apple."` + +Two brivla `cidja` and `dunda` come together below to create a +compound-selbri inside a sumti: + +`       Simple Selbri` +`        ┌───┴───┐` +` lo <`` ``> ku `` lo `` ku` +`    └───────┬───────┘` +`       Selbri Tanru` + +` "The food-donor loves people."` + +But what is the definition of a composite-selbri or tanru? + +Tanru are metaphorical, so their full meaning is ambiguous. However, +basic structure of the definition is that of the **right most** selbri +component: + +` gleki : x1 is happy about x2` + +` cadzu : x1 walks on surface x2` + +` gleki cadzu : x1 happy-walks on surface x2` + +` What does "happy-walk" really mean? Only the speaker knows for sure!` + +## Conversation + +### Proper Nouns + +Proper nouns are created by using `la` instead of `lo`: + +` mi prami lo rozgu ku` +`          ──       ──` +` "I love roses."` + +` mi prami la rozgu ku` +`          ──       ──` +` "I love Rose."` + +` Names are sumti just like any other.` + +### Introductions + +Introducing one's own self is done with the cmavo `mi'e`: + +` Pattern: mi'e NAME` + +` mi'e la rozgu ku` +` ────` +` "I'm Rose."` + +### Greetings + +Greeting another person is done with the cmavo `coi`: + +` Pattern: coi SUMTI` + +` coi la rozgu ku` +` ───` +` "Hello, Rose."` + +` coi lo tadni ku` +` ───` +` "Hello, student"` + +` coi do` +` ───` +` "Hello, you."` + +` Or just, "coi"` + +### Farewells + +Farewells are offered with the cmavo `co'o`: + +` Pattern: co'o SUMTI` + +` co'o la rozgu ku` +` ────` +` "Goodbye, Rose."` + +### Requesting Attention + +Requests for attention are made with the cmavo `ju'i`: + +` Pattern: ju'i SUMTI` + +` ju'i la rozgu ku` +` ───` +` "Hey, Rose."` + +If multiple listeners paying attention you can address them individually +with `doi`: + +` Pattern: doi SUMTI` +` doi la mirli ku ko mipri` +` ───` +` "Keep it secret, Moose"` + +### Yes No Questions + +"Yes or No" questions can be asked by using the `xu` cmavo: + +` i xu do citka lo plise ku` +`   ──` +` "Did you eat an apple?"` + +Notice that even though the sentence is now a question rather than a +statement the overall structure hasn't changed. + +The `xu` is placed after the sentence separator `i` so as to apply to +the whole sentence equally. By placing `xu` after a specific word +emphasis can be placed on it: + +` i do citka lo xu plise ku` +`               ──` +` "Was it an apple you ate?""` + +### Yes No Answers + +"Yes" and "No" answers can be supplied with the following replies: + +` In the affirmative, "go'i" is used:` +`   Q: xu do citka lo plise ku` +`   A: go'i` +`      ───` +` The denial is supplied by: na go'i` + +### Sumti Questions + +Sumti specific questions can be asked by using the `ma` cmavo in place +of the sumti in question. + +` do citka ma` +`          ──` +` "What did you eat?"` + +` ma catra ma` +` ──       ──` +` "Who killed who?"` + +To answer sumti questions simply state what fills the missing place: + +` lo plise ku` + +Or restate the question with the places filled in: + +` do catra mi` + +### Selbri Questions + +Selbri specific questions can be asked by using the `mo` cmavo in place +of the selbri in question. + +` mo fa mi do ti` +` ──` +` "What are we doing with this?"` + +` do mo` +`    ──` +` "You are/doing what?"` + +` do mo fengu mi` +`    ──` +` "What kind of angry are you at me?"` + +### Attitude Questions + +A special kind of question using the cmavo `pei` asks the listener to +share their feelings or disposition about some topic: + +` i pei mi cliva` +`   ───` +` "How do you feel about me leaving?"` + +"pei" is another word which can direct its emphasis by way of +right-attachment: + +` i mi jukpa lo jipci ku pei` +`                        ───` +` "How do you feel that its chicken that I cook.` + +### Attitude Cmavo + +In addition to making an explicit statement about one's self, an answer +to `pei` can be given with cmavo from the UI Family of "attitudinals". + +` ui - "I'm happy"` + +` a'o - "I hope"` + +` i'e - "I approve"` + +There are many attitudinals and they all express, in one way or another +some aspect of the speaker's disposition about the speech the +attitudinal is appears in. + +` i ui do prami mi` +`   ──` +` "You love me, and I'm happy about it."` + +` i a'o do snada` +`   ───` +` "I'm hopeful you succeed."` + +Like many other cmavo, UI attitudinals give emphasis to the part of +speech they attach to: + +` do pinxe lo birje ku e'u` +`                      ───` +` "I suggest beer to be what you drink."` + +### Attitude Ranges + +Attitudinals have an inherent "range" or "intensity spectrum" which can +be altered from the default. + +Without any modifier you get the default attitude. However, `nai` and +other cmavo can affect the sense of the UI cmavo: + +` ui cai     - "I'm happy as possible"` +` ui sai     - "I'm very happy"` +` ui         - "I'm happy"` +` ui ru'e    - "I'm kinda/sorta happy"` +` ui cu'i    - "I'm neutral in my happiness"` +` ui nai     - "I'm unhappy"` +` ui nai sai - "I'm very unhappy"` + +and so on... + +### Evidential Cmavo + +A sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI2 Evidentials, express an +epistemological claim. In other words, how the speaker came to know or +state whatever it is they are saying: + +` i ti'e do nelci mi` +`   ────` +` "I hear rumored that you like me."` + +` i pe'i lo plise ku xamgu` +`   ────` +` "It is my opinion that apples are beneficial."` + +` i za'a do mutce xagji` +`   ────` +` "I observe that you are very hungry."` + +` i ba'a la rozgu ku zvati lo zdani ku` +`   ────` +` "I expect Rose is at the house."` + +### Discursive Cmavo + +Another sub-family of the attitudinals, the UI3 "discursives" express +the point or purpose of a part of or a whole statement. + +` i do citka lo titla ku po'o` +`                        ────` +` "You only eat sweets."` + +` i ji'a mi nitcu lo jdini ku` +`   ────` +` "Also, I need money."` + +` i si'a mi terpa lo jukni ku` +`   ────` +` "Similarly, I'm afraid of spiders."` + +` i ku'i lo jenmi ku daspo` +`   ────` +` "However, armys are destructive."` + +### Humor + +Having a sense of humor is key to any conversation: + +Sarcasm: + +` i xo'o lo se platu ku banli` +`   ────` +` "Oh jeeze, great plan."` + +` i xo'o nai lo skaci ku melbi` +`   ────────` +` "Seriously, that skirt is beautiful."` + +Levity: + +` i zo'o se ckaji do` +`   ────` +` "Ho! Typical you."` + +` i zo'o nai mi nelci lo cutci` +`        ────` +` "I do like these shoes..."` + +Amusement: + +` i u'i xu do mulno` +`   ───` +` "Haha, are you done yet?"` + +` i u'i nai xu do mulno` +`   ───────` +` "Yea.. are you done yet?"` + +### Changing the Subject + +If things get tense you can always change the subject with `ta'o`: + +` i ta'o do klama ma` +`   ────` +` "By the way, where are you going?"` + +You can also return to a previous topic by adding `nai`: + +` i ta'o nai mi'o casnu ma` +`   ────────` +` "Returning, what were we discussing?"` + +### Requests and Commands + +Ultimately if things go completely sour you may have to request your +interlocutor to leave: + +` i e'o do cliva` +`   ───` +` "Please, you leave."` + +Or if they have been particularly offensive you might demand it\! + +` i ko cliva` +`   ──` +` "I implore you to leave."` + +` Any command is possible by using "ko" in place of the normal "do".` + +## Sumti Manipulation + +### Saying "and" and "or" + +To make statements about different sumti at the same time the connective +cmavo `je` can be used: + +` Pattern: SUMTI je SUMTI => SUMTI'` + +` i mi nelci [[lo plise ku] je [lo perli ku]]` +`                           ──` +` "I like apples and pears."` + +Similarly, `ja` can be used for "or": + +` i ko cuxna [[lo dakfu ku] ja [lo mruli ku]]` +`                           ──` +` "Pick the knife or the spear"` + +### Grouping + +To group multiple sumti together to say that they do something together, +`jo'u` can be used: + +` Pattern: SUMTI jo'u SUMTI => SUMTI'` + +` i [[mi] jo'u [do]] bevri lo pipno` +`         ────` +` "You and I carry the piano"` + +` i mi se catra [[lo fagri ku] jo'u [lo bisli ku]]` +`                              ────` +` "I was killed by fire and ice."` + +### Ownership + +To associate one sumti with another by way of ownership the cmavo `po` +is used: + +` Pattern: SUMTI po SUMTI => SUMTI'` + +` i [[lo karce ku] po [mi]] spofu` +`                  ──` +` "My car is broken."` + +` i ko cpacu [[lo ckiku ku] po [do]]` +`                           ──` +` "Go get your keys."` + +### Association + +For a weaker association than ownership you can use `pe`: + +` Pattern: SUMTI pe SUMTI => SUMTI'` + +` i mi vasxu [[lo vacri ku] pe [do]]` +`                           ──` +` "I'm breathing your air."` + +` i ko zutse [[lo stizu ku] pe [mi]]` +`                           ──` +` "Sit in my chair."` + +### Pluralities + +To specify how many of a sumti there are, a number can be placed before +the sumti: + +` Pattern: PA SUMTI => SUMTI'` + +` Numbers:` +`  no  pa  re  ci  vo  mu  xa  ze  bi  so` +`   0   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9` + +` i mi viska [mu [lo bakni ku]]` +`             ──` +` "I see 5 cows."` + +` i mi se raktu [so so [lo nabmi ku]]` +`                ─────` +` "I am troubled by 99 problems."` + +### Subjective Numbers + +Other kinds of "subjective numbers" exist too which are pretty handy: + +` i xu do citka [du'e [lo plise ku]]` +`                ────` +` "Did you eat too many apples?"` + +` so'u lo plise ku    - "a few apples"` +` so'o lo plise ku    - "several apples"` +` so'i lo plise ku    - "many apples"` +` so'e lo plise ku    - "most of the apples"` +`   ro lo plise ku    - "all the apples"` +`  rau lo plise ku    - "enough apples"` +` mo'a lo plise ku    - "not enough apples"` +` da'a ci lo plise ku - "all but three apples"` + +## Selbri Manipulation + +### Negation and Affirmation + +Most selbri manipulation is performed via prefix cmavo. For example +negation is done with `na`: + +` Pattern: NA SELBRI => SELBRI'` + +` i mi `>` +`       ──` +` "I'm not hungry"` + +` On the flip-side you can say something is certain:` + +` i mi `>` +`       ────` +` "I am definitely hungry"` + +### Scaling Relevance + +Other cmavo have related effects which specify how strongly the selbri +is applied: + +` i mi `>` +`       ────` +` "I'm not really that hungry."` + +` i mi `>` +`       ────` +` "I'm full!"` + +### Saying "and" and "or" + +Similarly to sumti, selbri can be joined with the very same connective +words: + +` i mi <`` je ``>` +`               ──` +` "I'm tired and hungry"` + +` i mi'o e'u <`` ja ``>.` +`                     ──` +` "We should eat or leave."` + +### Tense + +While Lojban bridi don't have any implicit tense, selbri can be modified +to have such tense: + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I saw you."` + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I see you."` + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I will see you."` + +### Temporal Distance + +In addition to direction, temporal distance can also be provided: + +` mi `> do` +`        ──` +` "I just saw you!"` + +` mi `> do` +`        ──` +` "I saw you a while ago."` + +` mi `> do` +`        ──` +` "It has been a long while since I've seen you."` + +### Proximity + +Selbri can also be modified in terms of spatial proximity: + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I saw you right here!"` + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I saw you nearby."` + +` mi `> do` +`     ──` +` "I saw you elsewhere."` + +### Preloading + +Selbri can be "pre-injected" with a sumti, removing a sumti place from +the definition, with the `be` cmavo: + +` Pattern: SELBRI be SUMTI => SELBRI'` + +` dunda : x1 donates gift x2 to beneficiary x3` +` dunda be lo plise ku : x1 donates apples to beneficiary x2` + +By default `be` injects a sumti into the x2 place, but the FA family can +be used to specify which place should be filled: + +` vecnu be fi lo jecta ku : x1 sells x2 to the state` + +Multiple sumti places may be filled, separated by `bei`: + +` vecnu be lo xarci ku bei lo jecta ku : x1 sells weapons to the state` + +### Preloaded Sumti + +Note that `be` forms a new selbri even though it incorporates a sumti: + +` ┌──────new selbri──────────┐` +` <``  be  [lo xarci ku]> = x1 sells weapons to x2` +`     │               │` +` base selbri   injected sumti` + +This is a little strange when used as the main verb of a sentence: + +`    (who)         (sells guns)       (the state)` +`     ma     ``   lo jecta ku` +`   [seller]             │              [buyer]` +`      └─────────────────┴─────────────────┘` + +`lo xarci ku` could just have been provided as x2 to a normal `vecnu`. +The `be` appears unnessecary. However, this is very useful for creating +interesting sumti\! + +`              ┌───preloaded selbri─────┐` +` mi tavla [lo <`` be [lo xarci ku]> ku]` +` "I talk to the seller of weapons.` + +` ko na lebna [lo <`` be fi [mi]> ku]` +` "Don't you take ideas of mine."` + +This is far more explicit than using `pe` or `po`. + +## Subordination + +### Facts + +Similar to the transformation of selbri into sumti the same can be done +for whole bridi into selbri with the help of `du'u` and `kei`: + +` Pattern: du'u BRIDI kei => SELBRI` + +The definition of such a selbri is something like: + +` x1 is the fact represented by the inner bridi` + +` ┌───fact selbri────┐` +` du'u do prami mi kei =  x1 is the fact that: you love me` +`     └─────┬─────┘` +`      inner bridi` + +Adding `lo` and `ku`, the selbri is transformed into a sumti allowing +one to talk about the fact inside: + +` [lo  ku] = "the fact that you love me"` + +These nested fact sumti can be used as any other: + +`              ┌───fact selbri────┐` +` mi djuno [lo du'u do prami mi kei ku]` +`                  └─────┬─────┘` +`                   inner bridi` + +` "I know that you love me."` + +### Events + +Where `du'u` gets at the truth of a matter, `nu` can emphasize the time +and location in which a bridi takes place: + +` Pattern: nu BRIDI kei => SELBRI` + +The definition of such a selbri is something like: + +` x1 is the event described by the inner Bridi` + +` ┌──fact selbri───┐` +` nu do speni mi kei =  x1 is the event of: you are married to me` +`   └─────┬─────┘` +`    inner bridi` + +Just like with `du'u` these `nu` selbri can be turned into sumti with +`lo` and `ku`: + +` [lo  ku] = "the event of our marriage"` + +And can be incorporated into larger sentences: + +`              ┌──fact selbri───┐` +` mi djica [lo nu do speni mi kei ku]` +`                └─────┬─────┘` +`                 inner bridi` + +` "I desire our marriage."` + +### Properties + +A third word, `ka` can also create a selbri from a bridi much like +`du'u` and `nu`: + +` Pattern: ka BRIDI kei => SELBRI` + +The bridi must contain at least one `ce'u` sumti: + +`              ┌───────property selbri────────┐` +` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]` +`                └────────────┬────────────┘` +`                        inner bridi` + +The `ce'u` has no meaning of its own. The selbri that receives the +property specifies what it refers to. In this case, it is `cnici` taking +the property as its x2. + +The definition of `cnici` is: + +` x1 is orderly/neat/ordered in property x2` + +And so it is the x1, or `mi`, who is orderly in the eating of cookies. + +` mi cnici [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]` +`  └───────┬────────┘` +`     bound sumti` + +` "I am orderly in the eating of cookies."` + +The `ce'u` can appear anywhere in the inner bridi: + +` do cinmo [lo ka la mam ku vajni ce'u kei ku]` +`  └──────────────┬─────────────────┘` +`            bound sumti` + +` "You feel the emotion of Mother being important to you."` + +Some selbri words make comparative statements: + +` zmadu: x1 is more than x2 in property x3` + +` do zmadu mi [lo ka ce'u citka lo titnanba ku kei ku]` +`                   └────────────┬────────────┘` +`                           inner bridi` + +` do citka lo titnanba ku "is more than" mi citka lo titnanba ku` + +` "You are more than me in the eating of cookies."` +` "You eat more cookies than me."` + +Numerous property relations exist within the Lojban lexicon. + +### Relative Phrases + +Additional information about a sumti can be provided by attaching a +bridi to it with `noi`: + +` Pattern: SUMTI noi BRIDI ku'o => SUMTI'` + +Similarly to the properties created with `ka`, `noi` bridi have a +stand-in word `ke'a`: + +` ko penmi la rozgu ku noi mi prami ke'a ku'o` +`                         └──────┬──────┘` +`                           inner bridi` + +` Meet Rose, who I love.` + +The `noi` bridi is attached to `la rozgu ku` and so it is her to whom +`ke'a` refers to. + +If the information is not merely incidental but nessecary to discern +which thing is being talking about `poi` can be used instead: + +` ko penmi lo bruna ku poi mi prami ke'a ku'o` +`                         └──────┬──────┘` +`                           inner bridi` + +` Meet the brother I love (compared to whichever I don't.)` + +## Understanding Time + +The basic tenses `pu`, `ca` and `ba` were covered previously but there +is a bit more to say about time. + +### Basic Tenses + +The tense for stating something is currently happening is `ca`: + +` mi ca citka` +`    ──` +` "I am currently eating."` + +Another way of stating this (which will be helpful later) is: + +` "The present coincides with my eating."` + +`              citka` +`    ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +How about the other tenses? + +` mi pu pensi` +`    ──` +` "I was thinking."` + +` "The past coincides with my thinking."` + +`   pensi` +`    ⇜├──────────┬──────────┬⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +` do ba jimpe` +`    ──` +` "You will understand."` + +` "The future coincides with your understanding."` + +`                         jimpe` +`    ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┤⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +### Event Contours + +All events have a "temporal extent" or lifetime. It is often useful to +describe the various events "within" an event. The ZAhO family of tenses +can be used for accessing +them: + +`                                                      ╎ pu'o:  before` +`pu'o      ═══════════╣  ╠════════════       ba'o      ╎ co'a:  the outset` +`        co'a      de'a  di'a       co'u               ╎ de'a:  break` +`                                                      ╎ di'a:  resumption` +`          └───────────┬─────────────┘                 ╎ co'u:  finish` +`                    co'i                              ╎ ba'o:  after` +`                                                      ╎ co'i:  for the duration` + +Like basic tenses, they modify a selbri to create a new one: + +` Pattern: ZAhO SELBRI => SELBRI` + +` mi `> lo plise ku` +`     ────` +` "I'm starting to eat an apple."` + +` mi pacna lo nu `> kei ku` +`                 ────` +` "I wish for it to finish raining."` + +` ko `>` +`     ────` +` "Take a break from studying."` + +` mi `>` +`     ────` +` "Its before my bedtime."` + +` mi `> do` +`     ────` +` "My loving you has passed.""` + +### Tensed Contours + +If no basic tense is provided, `ca` or present-tense is assumed: + +` mi `> lo plise ku` +`     ──  ────` +` "I'm starting to eat an apple"` +` "The present coincides with the start of my apple eating."` + +`                citka` +`                ╠═══╣` +`                ┊` +`    ⇜┬──────────┼──────────┬⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +But how do the ZAhO contours interact with different CA tenses? + +` mi `>>` +`     ──  ────` +` "It was before my bedtime."` +` "The past coincides with the runup to my bedtime."` + +`       sipna` +`     ┊ ╠═══╣` +`     ┊` +`    ⇜┼──────────┬──────────┬⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +` mi `>> do` +`     ──  ────` +` "My loving you will have passed."` +` "The future coincides with the aftermath of our love."` + +`                    sipna` +`                    ╠═══╣  ┊` +`                           ┊` +`    ⇜┬──────────┬──────────┼⇝` +`    Past       Now       Future` + +## Prepositions + +Additional sumti places can be added to a bridi by importing them with +`fi'o`: + +` Pattern: fi'o SELBRI SUMTI => SUMTI` + +The x1 place of the specified selbri is added to the bridi and filled +with the specified sumti: + +`                        ┌────────fi'o clause───────┐` +` mi citka lo titnanba ku fi'o `` [la rozgu ku]` +` "I'm eating the cookies baked by Rose"` + +### Stage Additions + +This can be understood in terms of the stage-play metaphor used before. +`fi'o` terms act as assistant directors adding additional +roles: + +` STAGE:` +`        mi    citka  lo titnanba ku  fi'o jukpa   la rozgu ku      <= actors in the play` +`     [eater]    │       [meal]           │           [cook]        <= roles in the play` +`        ├───────┼──────────┤             ├─────────────┤` +`      role1  director    role2     asst. director  jukpa-role` + +### SE Prepositions + +Any selbri is compatible and that includes ones modified by SE: + +` lo cinfo ku kalte fi'o se pilno lo kanla ku` +` "The lion hunts with its eyes."` + +` lo kalte ku cizda'u fi'o te jvinu lo se citka ku` +` "The hunter is a monster from the perspective of the meal."` + +### Spatial Prepositions + +Some useful selbri for prepositions stating where the bridi takes place: + +`  selbri    │ gloss` +` ───────────┼──────────────` +`  se zvati  │ located at` +`  se jibni  │ located near` +`  se nenri  │ located in` +`  te ragve  │ across from` +`  se gapru  │ above` +`  se cpana  │ ontop of` +`  se cnita  │ underneath` +`  se sruri  │ surrounding` + +### Temporal Prepositions + +A few selbri useful for prepositions denoting when a bridi takes place: + +`  selbri    │ gloss` +` ───────────┼──────────────` +`  tcika     │ at time` +`  detri     │ on date` +`  balvi     │ before` +`  cabna     │ during` +`  purci     │ after` + +### Causal Prepositions + +Some selbri useful for propositions explaining how a bridi came about: + +`  selbri    │ gloss` +` ───────────┼──────────────` +`  mukti     │ motivated by` +`  rinka     │ caused by` +`  krinu     │ justified by` +`  jalge     │ with result` + +### BAI Prepositions + +A small number of cmavo in the BAI family can be used for specifying +useful prepositions as a shortcut: + +` Pattern: BAI SUMTI => SUMTI` + +Just like `fi'o` prepositions each cmavo from the BAI family encodes a +particular sumti place: + +`  selbri    │ BAI    │ gloss` +` ───────────┼────────┼──────────────────` +`  mukti     │ mu'i   │ motivated by` +`  rinka     │ ri'a   │ caused by` +`  krinu     │ ki'u   │ justified by` +`  jalge     │ ja'e   │ with result` +`  vanbi     │ va'o   │ under conditions` +`  gasnu     │ gau    │ performed by` +`  tadji     │ ta'i   │ with approach` +`  catni     │ ca'i   │ by authority` +`  cusku     │ cu'u   │ said by` +`  se pilno  │ sepi'o │ using tool` + +These can result in slightly more terse prepositional clauses: + +`                  ┌─────BAI clause─────┐` +` lo cinfo ku kalte sepi'o [lo kanla ku]` +` "The lion hunts with its eyes."` + +## Miscellaneous additions + +### Indirect questions + +The word `kau` in a fact "defuses" a preceding question word, and +focuses that whole fact on the would-be answer. + +` Pattern: QUESTION_WORD kau => QUESTION_WORD` + +`                          ┌────indirect question───┐` +` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma kau finti lo pemci ku kei ku` +`                           ──────` +` "Crystal is curious as to who invented the poem."` + +`                 ┌──indirect question─┐` +` mi djuno lo du'u do cliva mu'i ma kau kei ku` +`                                ──────` +` "I know why you left."` + +`                    ┌─indirect question─┐` +` mi na morji lo du'u xu kau  misno kagni kei ku` +`                     ──────` +` "I don't remember whether or not it was a famous company."` + +`                    ┌──indirect question──┐` +` mi na jimpe lo du'u lo nabmi ku mo kau mi kei ku` +`                                 ──────` +` "I don't understand what the issue has to do with me."` + +(If we don't add `kau`, the whole sentence is simply a complex question +asking what fills `ma`, as before:) + +` la krili ku kucli lo du'u ma finti lo pemci ku kei ku.` +`                           ──` +` "Who is it that Crystal is curious about them inventing the poem?"` + +### Elliptical words + +A couple of the classes of words we've handled have an "elliptical" +member, with carry an intentionally unspecified meaning. + +Using one of these means: "I assume the listener will know what I mean, +so I don't have to specify exactly." + +Think of words like "you-know-what", "thingy", et +cetera. + +`  word    │ type   │ gloss` +` ─────────┼────────┼──────────────────────────` +`  zo'e    │ SUMTI  │ unspecified argument (equivalent to not filling a place)` +`  co'e    │ SELBRI │ unspecified relation` +`  do'e    │ BAI    │ unspecified preposition` +`  ge'e    │ UI     │ unspecified emotion` + +These words are very useful when you don't know exactly which word to +use, but it doesn't matter. + +` mi ba cusku zo'e la rozgu ku` +`             ────` +` "I'll tell Rose."  (unspecified x2)` + +` .au do co'e` +`        ────` +` "I want you to."  (unspecified predicate)` + +` ciska do'e lo latmo lerfu ku` +`       ────` +` "Write (in/with/…) Latin characters."` + +` ge'e mi cliva` +` ────` +` "Eh, I'm leaving."  (unspecified emotion)` + +### Some event involving… + +There is also a word, `tu'a`, for building facts, events, or properties +that involve a sumti in some unspecified manner. + +` Pattern: tu'a SUMTI => SUMTI` + +(Essentially, `tu'a SUMTI` is short for `lo (du'u/nu/ka) SUMTI co'e kei +ku`.) + +` steba: x1 is frustrated about x2 (fact/event).` +` ` +` mi steba lo nu stodi gunka lo jibri ku ja'e lo mabla ku kei ku` +`          ─────────────────────────────────────────────────────` +` "I'm frustrated by steadily working my job with crappy results."` +` ` +` mi steba tu'a lo jibri ku` +`          ────────────────` +` "I'm frustrated about my job."` + +` lerci: x1 (event) happens late by x2's standards.` +` ` +` lo nu lo trene ku darca lo tcana ku kei ku lerci` +` ──────────────────────────────────────────` +` "The train arriving at the station happens late."` +` ` +` tu'a lo trene ku lerci` +` ────────────────` +` "The train is late."` + +### Sumti raising + +Let's take a closer look at the last example. + +In Lojban, we can't say something like `lo trene ku lerci`. The only +thing that can be late is some event in time, and a train is not an +event\! + +So, we use `tu'a` to "wrap" `lo trene ku` in an abstraction. (Doing this +is sometimes called *sumti raising*.) + +There is another word to help us do the same thing, namely `jai`. + +` Pattern: jai SELBRI => SELBRI` + +Instead of wrapping a sumti, it modifies a selbri's meaning to have a +"wrapped" x1. These two are equivalent: + +`         x1   jai SELBRI   x2 x3 x4 …` +` ≡ (tu'a x1)      SELBRI   x2 x3 x4 …` + +This becomes more useful once we combine it with +`lo`. + +` nabmi      = x1 (nu) poses a problem to x2.` +` jai nabmi  = x1 (thing) is problematic to x2; as in, something abstract involving x1 is a problem to x2.` + +` lo nabmi ku      = a problem (event).` +` lo jai nabmi ku  = something problematic (any type).` + +### Dropping terminators + +Those `ku`s and `kei`s are really starting to stack up. You can often +omit them. For example at the end of a bridi: + +`   mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci ku kei ku` +` → mi troci lo nu darxi lo bolci` +`   "I try to hit the ball."` + +Or at the end of an inner bridi: + +`        ┌───inner bridi───┐` +`   lo nu ponse lo fonxa ku kei ku xlali lo verba ku` +` → lo nu ponse lo fonxa    kei ku xlali lo verba` +`   "Owning a phone is bad for kids."` + +You can drop `ku` if it is followed by a *neighboring* sumti in the +current bridi: + +`   mi canja lo jemna ku lo solji ku do` +` → mi canja lo jemna    lo solji    do` +`   "I trade gems in return for gold with you."` + +There are other cases where it's possible, but they're not as clear-cut.